Ebong Indrajit
Troubled Galaxy Destroyed Dreams: Chapter 26
Palash Biswas
http://troubledgala
High alert in Malkangiri district, borders sealed
Press Trust Of India
Malkangiri, July 17, 2008
A day after Maoists killed 17 police personnel in a landmine blast in
Orissa, a high alert was sounded in Malkangiri district, the site of
the explosion, and borders with Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh were
sealed.
State police along with Special Operations Group (SOG) is doing
combing operation in the state. They are being assisted by CRPF, anti-
naxal Greyhound Force of Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh police,
police said.
Amidst speculation about possible use of RDX in Wednesday's blast,
experts are trying to ascertain the nature of explosives used by the
ultras.
"Our scientific team is working on the spot to verify whether RDX has
been used in the explosion," DGP Gopal Chandra Nanda told reporters
after visiting the blast site.
Maoists yesterday triggered a landmine blast at MV-126, about 50 km
from Malkangiri, when jawans of Orissa's SOG and police were
travelling in a van to MPV-41.
The attack came 18 days after the Maoists carried out an attack,
which left 35 dead and dozens injured, on a launch carrying Greyhound
personnel in a reservoir in Malkangiri district.
Somnath undergoes routine eye check-up
Hyderabad (PTI): Lok Sabha Speaker Somnath Chatterjee today underwent
a routine eye check at L V Prasad Eye Institute here.
Chatterjee underwent a cataract surgery two weeks ago and he is
absolutely normal, an institute official said.
Later, he underwent some checks at the Asian Institute of
Gastroenterology.
When newsmen tried to contact Chatterjee for his stand on nuclear
deal and his continuation in office, his aids kept the media away
from him telling the Speaker is not interested in meeting them.
He is likely to return to Delhi on Thursday night.
No question of compromise on nuke programme: Sonia
Nellore (AP) (PTI): In a strong rebuttal of the Left parties
criticism on the Indo-US nuclear deal, Congress President Sonia
Gandhi on Thursday said there was no question of compromising on the
country's security interest, nuclear programme and foreign policy.
Against the backdrop of allegations by the former allies against the
government and the Congress leadership, she said they did not not
need certificate of patriotism from anyone.
Strongly backing the prime minister, she said the country needs
access to latest nuclear technology and fuel from other countries and
asked how they could be faulted for trying to provide this to people.
".....Yet we are being accused of going against the interest of our
country. Let me state before you, before the whole country
categorically. There is no no question of compromising on our
security interest, on our nuclear programme and our independent
foreign policy," Gandhi said addressing a public meeting here.
In the Congress Working Committee (CWC) last week, she regretted the
break up in ties with the Left parties but today she appeared more
direct in replying to their criticism on the deal.
The UPA chairperson said through India there was need for access to
the latest nuclear technology and fuel from other countries.
"And this is what we want to do for our people. And how can we be
faulted for striving to provide all this for our people. Yet, we are
being accused of going against the interest of our country," she
said.
Referring to the accusation that the government was going against the
country's interest, Gandhi said without naming any party that "We do
not not need any certificate from any party or anybody about our
patriotism".
Gandhi said there was no question of compromising on the issue
and "the future generation would recognise the value of this
agreement, value of what Prime Minister (Manmohan Singh) is doing
today."
"What the country needs most is to go ahead with pride the politics
that unites and not the kind of politics other parties do, spreading
hatred. We don't need the politics of division."
She said the nuclear deal was extremely important "as it would enable
more nuclear power plants so that we can generate more power."
"Our demand for electricity is growing day by day. To eliminate power
cuts we need access to nuclear technology and this is what we want to
do for the people. We need more and more power for farms, farmers,
schools, hospitals and for every single village and house in the
country."
Touching upon the issue of inflation, she said government had to face
huge challenges due to unprecedented oil price rise.
Hitting out at the NDA for raking up inflation issue, Gandhi said
during its regime the price of oil was USD 35 per barrel which has
jumped to USD 147 per barrel now now.
Pointing out that India has to import 75 per cent of its oil
requirements, she said "This imposes a very heavy burden on us. But
we have been extremely cautious that the consumer of the petro
products do not suffer."
She added, "We need more and more power for farms, farmers, schools,
hospitals and for every single village and house in the country."
Touching upon the issue of inflation, she said government has to face
huge challenges due to unprecedented oil price rise.
India changes strategy for IAEA talks
17 Jul, 2008, 0236 hrs IST, ET Bureau
NEW DELHI: In a last-minute change of plan, India has decided to
reduce the number of countries it will brief on the IAEA-India
specific safeguards agreement and keep the IAEA secretariat out of
the picture for the July 18 meeting.
Instead of going through the IAEA secretariat as planned, the
government decided on Tuesday that it would directly invite countries
on the IAEA board of governors and a few members of the Nuclear
Suppliers Group for the briefing.
Subsequently, the secretariat was informed on Tuesday night that
India had decided to cancel the Friday meeting, which was to be
hosted by the IAEA secretariat. This led to some amount of confusion
on Wednesday with the secretariat putting out statements saying that
the briefing called by India had been cancelled. India to clear the
misunderstanding then informed the secretariat that it was hosting
its own meeting outside the IAEA headquarters.
What has caught the IAEA secretariat by surprise is that it was India
which had asked the secretariat to host the Friday meeting, which had
been fixed for 10. 30 am at the IAEA headquarters in Vienna. Now
India will host the meeting later at 4.30 pm, local time in
Vienna. "We just learnt that there is a briefing scheduled on Friday
afternoon at a location outside the IAEA premises. The invitation was
distributed directly by India to the board members," said IAEA
spokesperson Melissa Fleming .
http://economictime
strategy_for_
Indian parliamentary system and its soul, the constitution of India
bleed in agony as the living Legend amongst Indian theatre
personalities, Badal Sarkar is indisposed nowadays.The running Nuke
Soap Opera has stolen every relevant issues challenging the Nation.
At the same time the Indigenous culture is also marginalised in such
a way that none of the Media, neither electronic nor print has any
time to focus otherwise unsponsered. Hence mainstream Bengali media
woes the newly found BANGA TANOYA, Nihita Biswas, the Latest icon of
Brahminical Hegemony to reveal her affair with the Lady Killer
Charles Shobhraj.
For me, as being an outsider, remembering Badal Sarkar seems to be
the most relevant item during these Tsunami times of Indian Nation. I
had not the opportunity to witness the great IPT movement in Bengal
but I feel the thrill while I witness Mahashweta Debi singing the
songs of NABANNYA, directed by her one time hubby, Bijon
Bhattacharya. I have gone through Asok Mitra`s details of Kallol days
in sixties. I have also felt the heat and dust of Jagannath in
eighties while being engaged in Jharkhand movement with AK Roy.
I was fortunate to witness the sensational exposure of Brahmincal
hegemony of Pune Zionist Brahmins by Vijay Tendulkar in his
masterpiece Ghasiram kotwal. I have seen magnificent productions of
sOJAN BADIYAR GHAT, TEESTA PARER BRITANTO, Antigone, Kath Kaa gadee,
Mricchkatic, Tempest, Chalk Circle and so on. But it was not the same
as I experienced with Badal Sarkar plays like Paagla Ghoda, Ebong
Indrajit or Micchil (Julus) in Nainital. We used the plays as the
most relevant tools of resistance during Chipoko movement in 1978-79.
Bengali theatre is identified with Resistance and Mass mobilisation.
Way back in 1870s Dino Bandhu Mitra wrote a play with the theme of
Neel Darpan. It was enacted and legend like Nati Binodini was the
part of the venture. The play was displayed in Lahore, New Delhi,
Lucknow and Brindaban at the time besides kolkata. in Lucknow, the
white men were agitated when they found an Englishman was being
thrashed by Indigenous untouchable peasants! The play was banned at
last. Kolkata Theatre personalities continued the Grand legacy. Thus,
we see Shaonli Mitra, the daughter of Shambhu Mitra and Tripti Mitre
presents ANIMAL FARM with a Human Scape of Singur and Nandigram! The
theatre personalities led by Shaonli and Kaushik sen lead the
Intelligentsia Kolakta to mobilise mass movement favouring post
modern Peasants` movement in Left ruled West Bengal. Once upon a
time, Utapal Dutta led his time with KALLOL, TITAS EKTI NADEER NAAM
and TINER TALWAR. Though Utpal dutta also played CHAKRANT justifying
Refugee Genocide in Marichjhanpi in 1979.
Badal Sarkar, contrary to the legacy of Bengali Theatre, had never
been associated with any Resistance Moviment. He was enough
Apolitical , but had never been Political. Badal Sarkar was never
been a party in Power politics.Thus,
At the same time, badal sarkar never represented the Ruling West
Bengal Brahminical hegemony as Shambhu Mitra, Ajitesh Bandopadhyaya,
Utapal dutta, Tripti Mitra, Bijon Bhattacharya, Rudra Prasad Sengupta
do. Theatre personality like Brtya Basu, most complex one and hard to
communicate has become latest Icons. We have Gautam Haldar, Sumon
Mukhopaddhyaya, Chandan Sen, Usha Ganguli, Kaushik sen, Shaonli
Mitra, Meghnath Bhattacharya , Manoj Mitra and scores of modern
theatre personalities well highlighted everywhere. But Badal Sarkar,
most recognised Theatre personality out of Bengal has to see this day
as sometimes Ram Kinkar Baiz and recently Somnath Hore as Artists
with no political patronage have faced.
We have seen Sharat to Ritwik Ghatak being persecuted in Bengal.Even
Rabindra nath Tagore was not spared. He climbed the Waves with the
Nobel prize at last. Nazrul and Jasimuddin may be quoted as other
significant contributors in indian Cultural Identity neglected by
Bengal.Rather, the Bengalies are quite habitual to worship someone
like Satyajeet Ray!
Thanks god! I don`t belong to the Procession.
In Nainital, NSD organised a Theatre Workshop sometime in 1978-79. BM
shah directed, Julus, the Procession. BB Karanth presented Evam
Indrajeet. The Chorus of Amal, Bimal, Kamal Ebong Indrajit haunts me
even today! Aloknath, Neena Gupta and lalit tiwari enacted the plays.
Later, our own jugmanch presented Julus, directed by Zahoor Allam.
DK, Sharad, Zahoor, Harish pant, Dheeraj and suneet were the actors!
We repeated the Julus experience with Girish Tiwari Girda`s play
NAGAADE KHamosh Hain using the Mal Road,NAINITAL for the Procession!
Badal Sarkar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Bardal Sarkar
FPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=
Born 1925
Years active 1945 - present
[show]Awards won
Other Awards
1966 Sangeet Natak Akademi Award
1972 Padma Shri
1997 Ratna Sadsya
Badal Sarkar (or Badal Sircar) (1925 - ) is a famous Indian
dramatist. He has written more than fifty plays of which Ebong
Indrajit and Basi Khabar are well known literary pieces. He is
actively involved with Bengali theatre.
He rose to prominence in the 1970's and was one of the leading
figures in the revival of street theater in Bengal. He revolutionized
Bengali theatre with his angst-ridden, anti-establishment plays
during the Naxalite movement. [1] He has been awarded the Padma Shri
in 1972, Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1968 and the Sangeet Natak
Akademi Fellowship, Ratna Sadsya [2], in 1997.
Contents
[hide]
1 List of plays
2 References
3 See also
4 External links
[edit] List of plays
Ebong Indrajit
Shesh Naai
Basi Khabar
Baaki Itihaash
Pagla Ghoda
Spartacus
Prastava
Juloos
Bhoma
Solution X
Baropishima
His plays reflected the atrocities that prevailed in the society, the
decayed hierarchical system and were socially enlightening.
`Ebong Indrajit' by Badal Sarkar
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I grew up listening to the stories of this play from dad. Although I
could never fully understand what is it about no matter how many
times dad told me. Finally I get a chance to see the play. A theater
group called `Mukhosh' is performing the play here in Bangalore. I
have already got the tickets thought would spread the word a bit
given the fact that me and Constant Motion bought the first two
tickets from KC Das on St Marks Road. The guy there didn't even know
he has the tickets up for sale. We had tell him we saw in the net
that he has the tickets. Any Bangalorean Bong interested in
accompanying pls leave a comment i'll take it from there.
A tip coming straight from Dad… You have to reach the theater before
time and ensure you catch the play from the first word, otherwise
you'd miss the significance of the name "Ebong Indrajit"
The details:
Date: Saturday, 30th June and Sunday, 1st July
Venue: Seva Sadan, Malleshwaram (14th Cross)
Time: 6:30 pm
Tickets: Rs.80/-
For advance booking, contact:
Anindita (9886307249)
Ayan (988680729
Apart from cinema, Bengal being a creative center for artistic and
intellectual endeavor, has always taken keen interest in the
theatrical elements that were found in many localized entertainments
in the various districts of West Bengal. Bengali folk-dramas have
their roots in the folk drama forms like Kabigan (a dramatic mode of
recitation), Kirtan and Baul songs (devotional music), Chhau (a
tribal dance-drama)
(performing duets), Yatra and Paalaagaan, which were mostly performed
in the open grounds of Bengal. These different performing art styles
paved the way for professional theatres.
Professional Theatres started growing since 1795 and were taken into
adulthood by distinguished conductors like D.L.Roy, Girish Ghosh,
Sisir Bhaduri, Ardhendu Mushtafi and others. The noble laureate poet
Rabindranath Tagore himself acted in the role of Alikbabu, in a
theatre of that time.
Bengali theatre
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FPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=
for grammar, style, cohesion, tone or spelling.
You can assist by editing it now. A how-to guide is available.
(December 2007)
Bengali theatre refers to theaters in which the dialogues are in the
Bengali language. However, there are some Hindi theatres as well
which are widely accepted by the Bengali people (e.g. the productions
of Rangakarmee, a group whose productions are directed mainly by Usha
Ganguly; the productions by Padatik, another group). Some persons may
be willing to incorporate these theatres in the category of Bengali
theatres. Bengali Theatres are produced mainly in West Bengal of
India and in Bangladesh. Bengali people are spread world wide.
Sometimes, they invite the Bengali theatres at their ceremonies;
sometimes, they themselves produce amateur Bengali Theatres.
Bengali theatre by and large has its origins in British rule. It
began as private entertainment in the early 19th century.[1] However,
in the pre-independence period (before 1947; especially in the late
19th century), Bengali theatres played a pivotal role in
manifestation of dislike of the British Raj in India.
After the independence of India in 1947, leftist movements in West
Bengal used theatre massively as a way of propaganda; this added some
special characteristics in Bengali theatre, the hangover of which is
still looming large, especially in the way of organization of the
theatre groups, they are called Group theatres; most of these groups
say that they carry an ideological inspiration behind their ensemble,
this is how they differentiate themselves from commercial Bengali
theatre, which is dead at present
Theatre is practised in West Bengal in a very wide scale. Almost
every locality has a theatre group, although none of them is confined
within the local characteristics. However, theatres in West Bengal
can be divided in two streams - (a) Kolkata-based theatres and (b)
Rural theatres. The Kolkata-based groups perform almost regularly in
the popular stages in Kolkata and stay in focus. Comparatively, the
rural theatre groups are less known although most of them work
seriously throughout the year. What rest of the world understands as
Bengali Theatre is actually the theatres presented by the Kolkata-
based groups. In form and content, the two types of theatres have no
major difference. But, in terms of both finance and expertise, the
Kolkata-based theatres are more enriched. This is mainly due to the
influx of expertise from rural areas to Kolkata in search of
appreciation from a larger set of audience.
Apart from the above two categories, there are some Bengali folk
theatres. The language Bengali has many versions within West Bengal
and Bangladesh. The standard Bengali language is said to be the
language that is spoken in Kolkata. Thus, the Bengali folk theatres
vary in language as well.
Some theatre groups work especially in the category of theatre for
development, in promotion of consciousness and awareness about
literacy, usage of latrines, usage of gas burners, AIDS etc.
Bengali theatre, at present, is not run commercially by any group or
company. A famous Bengali commercial theatre after independence has
been "Nahabat". However, there is a particular category of Bengali
theatre that is called "Jatra". This kind of Bengali theatre is run
commercially mainly in the rural areas of West Bengal and Bangladesh.
The most prominent characteristic of Jatra is over-acting with
extreme use of traditional musical instruments. At present, Jatra has
also been modernized to feature modern crisis through modern stories.
But, the form has not changed significantly. Jatra is a very
prospective scope of employment for those who can do it. Many popular
Bengali film-artists participate in Jatra.
Contents
[hide]
1 Music in Bengali theatre
2 Bengali theatre in Bangladesh
3 Famous persons: In West Bengal (India)
4 In Bangladesh
5 Modern theatre companies
6 Theater Groups in Bangladesh
7 References
8 External links
[edit] Music in Bengali theatre
Insofar as it was a unique style of theatre around the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, Bengali theatre had its own unique form of
Bengali music.[1] This form was pioneered by Girish Chandra Ghosh,
who was largely responsible for its period of maturity; the era of
Bengali theatre before him was mostly formative, and after his death
Bengali theatre music became more experimental.
Girish Chandra, all stageplays included some form of traditional
Bengali music, and dancer-singers who would perform before and
between the acts. Mythological plays would have Kiratn?nga songs,
epics would include indigenous styles such as khy?mt?, and comedies
and farcical plays often included tapp? songs by Nidhu Babu.[1]
[edit] Bengali theatre in Bangladesh
Bengali theatre also means theatres produced in the official language
of the nation-state Bangladesh (became independent from Pakistan in
1971) along with the theatres produced in Bengali in West Bengal,
India (West Bengal is at the west of Bangladesh border) - thus, it is
supposed to carry the identity and culture of a particular area.
Theatre The evolution of theatre in Bangladesh, which follows more or
less the South Asian tradition with a European mix later, may be
narrated in terms of three distinct streams: (i) Sanskrit theatre and
derivatives, (ii) the indigenous theatre and (iii) the European
theatre. In the South Asian tradition dramatic conflict is not an
indispensable structural element.
Sanskrit theatre and derivatives
Ancient period With the Gupta annexation of the greater portion of
Bengal by the 4th century AD, the Aryan culture of the upper Gangetic
plain penetrated into the region. The flourishing trade of Bengal led
to the rise of urban centres patronising art and culture. It is quite
logical to believe that in such urban centres, performances of
classical Sanskrit theatre would be a part of cultural life, at least
among the urbane classes of the society. A few literary evidences
strongly support this assumption. The most important of these is a
Sanskrit play titled Lokananda by chandragomi (6th c), a reputed
Buddhist grammarian from Bengal. Lokananda is structured in four acts
with a prologue. The play must have been popular, for I-Tsing
states, 'people all sing and dance to it throughout the five
countries of India'.
The intimate political connection of Bengal (or parts of it) with the
Aryan culture continued till the mid-8th century, during which period
Harsavardhan of Northern India, Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa,
Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and Lalitaditya of Kashmir exerted great
influence. Sanskrit theatre got a great patron in Harsavardhan who
was himself a renowned Sanskrit playwright (with plays such as
Nagananda to his credit). Bhavabhuti, the author of Malatimadhava,
was the court-poet of Yasovarman. However, the most interesting
account of a performance is recorded by the Kashmiri poet Kalhan in
his Rajatarangini. According to him, Jayapida, the grandson of
Lalitaditya, witnessed a performance given by a highly skilled dancer
named Kamala in the temple of Kartikeya in the city of
pundravardhana. The performance was given in accordance with Bharat's
Natyashastra (a Sanskrit treatise on theatre ascribed to Bharat).
Nothing much is known about Sanskrit theatre during the Pala Rule in
Bengal (mid-8th to mid-12th c). The sole evidence is the Tibetan
historian Taranath's comments about 'a grand dramatic performance
that formed part of seasonal festival' in the city of vikramapura,
which clearly indicates the existence of a flourishing tradition of
theatre.
The Senas, with their strong Brahmanical bias and distinct south
Indian background, extended widespread patronage to performances
derived from Sanskrit tradition. King vijayasena (c 1096-1159) and
Bhavadev Bhatta (minister of King Hari Varman and a noted scholar)
both claim to have provided for a great number of deva-dasis in the
temples established by them. Highly skilled in song, dance and music
in the classical tradition as formulated in the Natyashastra, the
deva-dasis gave public performances in the temples and also private
performances at royal courts. There also exist a substantial number
of references from various religious tracts of the period in which
nata (actor) has been cited as a separate class. Halayudh Mishra's
sekhshubhodaya, a historical kavya or poem, written in Sanskrit,
confirms the existence of nata (actors) and nartaki (danseuse) in the
Sena court. vidyapati's Purus Pariksa also refers to a performance by
an actor, named Gandharva, in the court of King laksmanasena.
Prevalence of classical Sanskrit theatre in the Sena court can also
be inferred from govardhan acharya's poetic work titled
aryasaptashati. Shlokas 174 and 538 of Aryasaptashati clearly refer
to acting, curtain, and actress, which obviously imply the existence
of Sanskrit theatre in the court of the Sena rulers.
Ragatarangini, a critical work on music composed in 1160 by Lochan
Pandit, refers to an earlier text titled Tambaru-nataka. It is
possible that Tambaru-nataka was a critical work on dramaturgy.
However, the most important material for study of theatre during this
period is a Sanskrit performance-
by jaydev, the court-poet of Laksmanasena. In the Gitagovindam Jaydev
blended the existing popular tale of radha and krishna with one of
the uparupakas (minor type of plays) of the classical Sanskrit
tradition and set a new trend, which was to be echoed in the
centuries that followed. If oral traditions have any historical
validity, then Jaydev performed the Gitagovindam as a singer with his
wife Padmavati as a dancer.
The Gitagovindam is composed in twelve parts and features three
characters: Krishna, Radha, and Sakhi. The characters may be
performed by three dancers (as in the case of Manipuri Rasa Nrtya
still performed in Bangladesh) or by a single dancer (as it was
possibly the case with Jaydev and Padmavati). The dancers are
required to sing their lines simultaneously as they dance with
mimetic gestures (angika abhinaya). In between the songs, the
sutradhar (narrator) is required to render narration in verse, in
which he describes part of the action, comments on the same and
sometimes also introduces the characters and describes their mental
states. The structure of performance follows the general pattern of
Sanskrit theatre. Clearly, the text bears remarkable similarity with
sangit-natakas (verse-plays) of the Nepalese court. The Gitagovindam
and the Aryasaptashati bear evidence that in the court of
Laksmanasena, the love theme of Radha and Krishna, performed by
courtesans, was indeed a regular feature. Jaydev's text stood out as
the model, to be emulated by the later poets in vernacular during the
course of the following centuries.
Medieval period Sanskrit theatre received a serious setback towards
the beginning of the13th century when the Turkish invasion wrested
north-western Bengal from the Senas. However, Sagaranandi composed a
critical work on Sanskrit dramaturgy, titled Natakalaksanaratnak
in the same century. The work cites quite a few play-texts, which
were also composed. Nothing more can be deduced with certainty, but
the very existence of a critical work on drama presupposes the
continuance of the tradition of Sanskrit theatre in Bengal, possibly
under the patronage of Hindu feudal lords and in Hindu kingdoms.
From the 16th century onwards, literary evidence appears in greater
number. Towards the end of the same century, King laksmana manikya of
bhulua composed two plays, Vikhyata-vijaya and Kuvalayashva-
his son, Amara Manikya composed one (Vaikuntha-vijaya) and a court
poet, kavitarkik, composed another, Kautuka-ratnakara. This evidence
proves unequivocally the existence of Sanskrit court theatre in
Bengal. It continued in the 18th century because of krishnachandra
roy, tributary king of Nabadwip (southern part of west bengal).
Chandi (1760), the unfinished play of his court poet bharatachandra,
which is based on the mythological tale of Mahisasura Vadha (the
slaying of the buffalo shaped asura), displays remarkable influence
of Sanskrit dramaturgy, although the play is not composed entirely in
Sanskrit. Although the play was never performed, the court of
Krishnanagara is known to have produced another play of similar
characteristics named Chitra-yajna by Vidyanath Vachaspati, in
1777/78.
Away from the court, rupa goswami, one of chaitanya's close
associates based at Vrindavan, composed three Sanskrit plays,
Bidagdha Madhava (1524), Lalita Madhava (1529), Dankeli-kaumudi
(1549), as well as a critical work on Sanskrit dramaturgy, Nataka
Chandrika. At least three more plays were written outside Vrindavan:
Jagannathavallabha by Ramananda Ray, chaitanyachandroday
kavikarnapur and Sangit Madhava by Govinda Das. The plays by Rupa
Goswami and Ramananda Ray's are all based on mythological tales of
Krishna. Kavi Karnapur's play is based on the life of Chaitanya. Of
these plays, only Jagannathavallabha is known to have been performed.
All save Govinda Das's play were translated into Bangla in the 17th
century. It is not known if any of these translations were performed.
Modern period Translations of Sanskrit play-texts continued in the
19th century. A few of these are Krishna Mishra's
Prabodhachandrodaya
Ratnavali (1849). Scholars in Bengal composed quite a few Sanskrit
texts in the modern period as well. A few examples of these are Amara-
mangala by panchanan tarkaratna (published c 1913), Nala-damayantiya
and Syamantakoddhar by Kalipada Tarkacharya, etc. The tradition of
Sanskrit theatre significantly influenced the initial phase of Bangla
plays. Jogendranath Gupta's Kirtibilas, credited as the first
original Bangla play and the first tragedy, makes use of the Nandi,
the Sutradhara and Nati. The first Bangla play to be performed on
stage, ramnarayan tarkaratna's Kulinkulasarvasva (composed in 1854,
performed in 1857), also borrows from the Sanskrit tradition in its
use of the Nandi, the Sutradhara and the Nati.
With rising social consciousness and effects of western education,
the conventions of Sanskrit theatre were seen to be ineffective in
portraying the social ethos of the period. michael madhusudan dutt
(1824-1873), the literary giant of this period, successfully bridged
the transition to an urban theatre independent of Sanskrit influence
by introducing techniques of European dramaturgy. From the mid-19th
century onwards, Sanskrit theatre and its derivatives ceased to be an
effective force in the theatre of Bengal.
Indigenous theatre The term 'indigenous theatre' (generally known
as 'folk' theatre) encompasses all forms of theatre which originated
in the region of Bengal. Unlike the Sanskrit theatre, the indigenous
theatre was always in direct contact with the people and was often
created and supported by them. However, it was not closed to the
refined techniques of the Sanskrit theatre. In the indigenous
theatre, the performers include actors, dancers, singers, musicians,
and puppeteers (both male and female). Their performance is not
restricted to dialogue in prose but is comprehensive and wide-
ranging. It includes any one or more of the following elements: (i)
dance, (ii) instrumental music and (iii) speech rendered in prose,
verse or lyric, either in the form of narration or that of dialogue.
The indigenous theatre of Bangladesh has developed in distinct forms,
which can be loosely categorised into (i) the Narrative, (ii) the
Song-and-Dance, (iii) the Processional, and (iv) the Supra-personae.
Narrative forms In the narrative forms of theatre, the lead-narrator
(gayen) describes an event, portrays various characters related to
the event and enacts the action, all in the third person. While
engaged as described above, s/he partly speaks his/her lines in
prose, partly recites in verse, and partly sings his/her story. S/he
is assisted by the choral singers-cum-
musical instruments (Mridanga and Mandira) and sing choral passages.
The gayen carries a chamar (whisk) in religious performances and
occasionally dances while singing. Usually, the performer makes
effective use of vocal inflections and physical gestures in his/her
portrayal of the characters. Sometimes s/he also readjusts his/her
basic costume, and uses a few props to make the portrayal more
effective.
The earliest evidence of narrative theatre in Bengal can be traced to
the charyapada or charyagiti, a form of songs popular in Bengal from
the 9th to the 12th century AD. These songs were composed by Tantric
Buddhist mendicants to expound their religious doctrine. They were
presented to the lay populace with the help of dance, in a manner
similar to the charya dance still seen in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal.
Ethnological studies indicate a long tradition of narrative theatre
in the Natha cult. These performances were based on oral compositions
of two distinct groups: (i) those dealing with the origin of the
Natha siddhas and the subsequent rescue of Minanatha by his disciple
Goraksanatha from the enticement of worldly pleasure and (ii) those
dealing with the exploits of Queen Maynamati and her son King
Govindachandra (or Gopichandra)
performances based on the Maynamati-Gopichand
created sometime immediately after the 11th century and gained wide
currency all over northern India. On the other hand, the performances
based on the Goraksanatha-
date. On the assumption that the Natha cult evolved sometime in the
9th century, it is possible to place the earliest performances of the
Goraksanatha-
None of the extant literary and liturgical texts of the Dharma cult
can be dated beyond the 17th century. However, it is very much
possible that in the 12th century, when the cult was definitely in
existence, there did exist a body of oral narratives on which the
later texts were built. Extant texts and current practice among the
followers of the cult indicate that celebrations of the ancient
period included narrative performances of oral compositions.
A large number of orally composed folk tales still prevailing at the
popular level, such as Madhumalar Kechchha, Sakhisona, Malanchakanyar
Kechchha, Shit-Basanta, Kanchanamala and Malatikusumamala, indicate
that their original nuclei were created in the 12th century or even
earlier. All the tales are secular in content, and some of them are
still performed in Bangladesh. It has been only since the first half
of the 20th century that they have been scribed and published in
editions such as Thakurmar Jhuli. It is reasonable to believe that,
for a predominantly non-literate audience, stories would be told
rather than read, and the most expedient way to commit a story to
memory is to have it composed in verse. Furthermore, terra-cotta
plaques depicting secular (Sanskrit Panchatantra) stories have also
been discovered in the temple of Somapura Monastery. Therefore, it
can be reasonably argued that the secular tales of the ancient period
were orally composed in rhymed metrical verse and rendered as
narrative performance.
Various political and social factors, including state-patronised
Brahmanical hegemony in the 12th century and the advent of the
Muslims in the early13th century, caused a qualitative change in the
culture of Bengal. Consequently, there was a gradual acculturation,
decay and transformation in Buddhist, Dharma and Natha cult
performances. On the other hand, an entirely new set of narrative
performances appeared in the indigenous theatre of Bengal.
Distinguishing between their subject matter, these can be divided
into three categories: (1) performances glorifying the Aryan pantheon
and legendary heroes as recounted in the ramayana and the
mahabharata, (2) performances glorifying the indigenous pantheon as
recounted in the mangalkavya and (3) performances glorifying Muslim
legendary heroes. Besides, the tradition of secular narratives
continued as before, invigorated by interaction with the above. In
this context, it is important to remember that early bangla
literature was dependent on lyric. Therefore, literary compositions
of the period under study should be held as performance-
merely pages of reading material valid only for literary analysis.
Largely based on the Bhagavata, srikrishnavijay was composed in 1473-
80. Therefore, it is very much possible that narrative performance
based on oral compositions of Krishna legends existed from earlier
times, probably from the beginning of the 13th century. The
translation of Valmiki's Ramayana in the first half of 15th century
also presupposes the existence in the 13th and 14th centuries of
narrative performances drawing from oral texts based on the exploits
of Ramachandra.
Initiated in the early 16th century by Chaitanya (1486-1533), Gaudiya
vaisnavism made a significant and popular contribution to the theatre
of Bengal by giving rise to the narrative form known as Lila Kirtan,
which had its formal inception at the famous festival of Kheur in
1576 or slightly after. Narottama Das, who is credited with having
given structure to Lila Kirtan, arrived at its structure by stringing
together brief Vaisnavite devotional songs known as padavalis, to
produce a coherent narrative based on a particular lila of Radha and
Krishna. He synthesised the indigenous musical tradition of Bengal
with the north Indian classical tradition and arrived at its unique
blend.
Vijay Gupta's Padmapurana (1494) and Bipradas Pipilai's Manasavijaya
(end of 15th c) are clear indications that narrative performances on
the serpent goddess manasa were very much in existence in the 15th
century. However, narrative performances based on oral compositions
were possibly prevalent in Bengal in the 13th and 14th centuries,
before the composition of written texts. From the 16th century
onwards, there appear a sizeable number of mangalakavyas on Manasa,
the most important of which was Narayan Dev's Padmapurana (first half
of 16th c) and Ketakadas Ksemananda's Manasamangala (mid-17th c).
Besides existing written texts, quite a few popular versions based on
oral compositions also came up during this period. Vijay Gupta's
Padmapurana is still performed in south-western Bangladesh as Rayani
Gan, while an adaptation of Narayan Dev's text is performed in north
Bengal as Padmapurana Gan.
The 16th century is also well known as the era of mangalakavyas on
chandi, for it was in this period that these gained widest currency.
The most renowned mangalakavya on the goddess is the one composed by
Kavikankana mukundaran chakravarti (c 1555-56). The signature-piece
(bhanita) indicates that the poet himself performed Chandimangala and
parts of it were rendered in lyric. On a few occasions his signature-
pieces suggest that the poet was in the company of skilled musicians
(kalanta, lit. well versed in classical music) and actors (natuya).
Another section indicates that the performance was composed of git
(song), badya (music), natya (acting) and dance, executed by actors
and skilled musicians. This textual evidence proves that
Chandimangala was given in the narrative form in the 16th century.
References in chaitanya bhagavata (Part I, Chapters 2 & 13; 1535-36)
indicate the existence of Mangal Chandir Git (narrative performance
based on eulogies of Mangal Chandi), in the first half of the 16th
century. The same text also testifies that narrative performances of
Shiver Git, based on oral compositions in praise of shiva, existed in
the first half of the 16th century and possibly earlier. A lone
performer, who danced and played the damaru (drum) as he sang, would
perform in a courtyard.
The appearance of yusuf-zulekha (c 1390-1410) marks the entry of an
entirely new element, the Perso-Arabic influence, in the history of
performance in Bengal. rasulbijay (1474), which recounts the life of
the Prophet, emphasised the keen interest of the Muslims in exerting
their distinct identity by attempting to create a tradition parallel
to the Hindu puranas. Both the texts were composed under court
patronage of the Muslim rulers and point to the beginning of
narrative performances based on Islamic root-paradigms. By the 16th
century, a large number of texts dealing with Islamic cosmology and
legends began to appear. Some of these (such as Maktul Hosain,
Kashemer Ladai, Karbala and janganama), focus particularly on the
pathetic deaths of Imam Hasan and Imam Hosain and the revenge of
their legendary half-brother, Hanifa. Others (nabi bangsha,
Rasulbijay and amir hamza) illustrate a vast area, often beginning
with the creation of the world, running right through legends related
to various prophets, and ending with the life and accomplishments of
the Prophet. The textual composition suggests that most of these were
given as narrative performance.
Besides the two groups of texts mentioned above, there also evolved a
third, the stories of which were indigenous in origin. Based on
various legends associated with a number of Muslim saints (pirs),
these can be best termed as 'miracles of saints'. Most of these
texts, composed in rhymed metrical verse, profess the efficacy of the
cult of their respective pirs ie, Khwaja Khizir, Pir Madar, Gazi Pir,
Satya Pir and Manik Pir. They seek to generate devotion in the cult
followers and warn the non-believers of dire consequences.
Khwaja Khizir is the earliest Muslim saint whose miracles gained wide
currency in the form of narrative (Khwaja Khizirer Jari) and
processional performance (Beda Bhasan). Historical records on the
celebration of Beda Bhasan by the ruling elite in 1626-27 make it
possible to believe that the celebration was very much in existence
by the mid-16th century. The hey-day of the cult and its performances
were the 17th and the 18th centuries. On the other hand, granting of
a special privilege to the followers of Pir Madar by a Mughal viceroy
of Bengal in 1659 (which included taking out processions in honour of
the pir) indicate that narrative and processional performances
related to the cult must have evolved by 1600 AD. Celebrations in
honour of Pir Madar on the day of the full moon in Magh (mid-January
to mid-February)
music played on dhak, dhol and kasi, are possibly of earlier origin,
dating back to the first half of the 15th century when the cult was
first introduced in Bengal. Performances of the cult, which still
exist in Bangladesh, are Madariya Michhil, Madar Bansher Gan and
Madar Pirer Gan. These performances clearly show that the cult had
incorporated elements from Tantric practices. Historical accounts
(Risalat al-Shuhada, second half of 15th c), textual evidence (sheikh
faizullah's Gazibijay, second half of 16th c), ethnological studies
and traditions reveal that the legend related to Pir Gazi arose
shortly after 1600 AD. The earliest performance of the cult of Gazi,
a narrative form known as gazir gan still seen in Bangladesh today,
arose by the mid-17th century. The earliest literary reference to
satya pir is to be found in kavi kanka's Vidya-Sundar (1502) while
the earliest written text on the miracles of the pir was composed by
Dvija Giridhara in 1663. It is believed that a form of narrative
performance (Satya Pirer Gan), based on oral compositions, evolved in
the second half of the 16th century. It was in the 18th and 19th
centuries that the performance gained wide currency. Literary
references to Manik Pir begin to appear in the first half of the 18th
century and extant written texts in his honour were composed in the
same century. It is possible that narrative performances based on
oral compositions (Manik Pirer Jari) began to develop in the second
half of the 17th century.
Secular narrative performances based on folk and fairy tales
continued in the medieval period. Chaitanya Bhagavata testifies to
the existence of performances known as Yogi Paler Git, Bhogi Paler
Git and Mahi Paler Git. However, the most significant development
occurred in the independent kingdom of arakan far in the south-east,
where Bahram Khan (16th c) composed laily-majnu, a free translation
of a Persian poetic text of the same title. Bahram Khan's text is
important for it is one of those rare specimens of Bangla literature
which end in separation and pathos, marking a sharp departure from
the norm of union and fulfilment of desire of the central characters.
The text marks the beginning of an entirely new trend of pathetic
lore. The same Arakanese court was a fertile ground for a host of
Muslim poets, the most famous of whom was alaol (c 1607-1680), whose
compositions include masterpieces such as padmavati (1651) and Saiful
Muluk-Badiujjamal (1659-69). All these texts are secular and romantic
in character. They are also remarkable for drawing their material
from Hindi and Persian sources, thus enriching the theatre of Bengal
with new vitality. All these texts were performed in narrative form
and gradually gained currency among the Muslim population all over
Bengal. By the late 18th century, there appeared the pala gan, the
form that features the oral version of maimansingha-
Song-and-dance forms A song-and-dance performance (nata-gita) is
characterised by dances rendered by performers enacting characters
while singing their lines or dancing silently to songs sung by a
group of choral singers and musicians.
The charyagiti clearly reveal that song-and-dance performances were
very well known among the Tantric Buddhists of the Pala society.
Examples can be seen in the song composed by kahnapa (text no 10),
which contains the words 'dancing' and 'the profession of acting' as
well as in the concluding two lines of another song composed by
Vinapa (text no 17) which contains the words 'dancing', 'singing'
and 'Buddhist drama'. Sketches of siddhacharyas in Tibetan Buddhist
monasteries have shown Vinapa and Sarahapa with musical instruments,
while Minapa, Dombipa and Jalandharipa are shown in dancing postures.
These and other references to performances made in Tantric esoteric
texts (such as Guhyasamajatantra) suggest that highly esoteric song-
and-dance type of performances, aiming at spiritual liberation, were
held in secluded spots at night or in temples. These song-and-dance
performances were usually given by a male ascetic with his female
partner and were accompanied by song (dohas and charyas sung by
fellow ascetics) and dance.
The Tantric Buddhist tradition of song-and-dance performances
continued among the followers of the Natha cult in performances such
as Yogir Gan and Yugi Parva, still seen in Bangladesh today. A
glimpse of ancient song-and-dance performances of the cult can be
seen in Goraksanath'
recounted in three narrative texts composed in the 16th century:
goraksavijay by Sheikh Faizullah, Gorkha-vijay by Bhimsen Ray and
Minachetan by Shyamadas Sen, and a play-text, Goraksa-vijay, by
Vidyapati c 1403. Gopichandra Nataka (17th c), another play-text from
the Nepalese royal court, further substantiates the contention made
above.
Krttivas, in his preface to the Ramayana (1415-1433), records the
popularity of song-and-dance performance in the royal court of the
Muslim rulers of gauda. The so-called account of ma huan recorded in
Ying Yai Sheng Lan (1408-1411) also confirms song-and-dance
performance in the Muslim royal court. According to the Chinese text,
song-and-dance type of performance were given by 'good singers and
dancers' in gorgeous costume 'to enliven drinking and feasting'.
The composition of srikrishnakirtan by c 1400 indicates that, by the
13th century, there existed among the people a type of song-and-dance
performance based on oral compositions featuring three characters:
Radha, Krishna, and Badai. During performance, the characters danced
as they sang their lines. Like the Gitagovindam, these performances
could be given by a single performer who would enact all the three
characters or by three performers who would enact the characters
separately. These were performed in rural festivals or during
ritualised worship of deities in temples.
The existence of song-and-dance performances in the early 16th
century is substantiated by Chaitanya Bhagavata (II, 18) which
elaborately describes Chaitanya and his disciples enacting such a
performance. Characters portrayed were Rukmini, Radha, her companion
Suprabha, Badai, Kotala, Narada and his follower. One part of the
performance featured Rukmini while the other, Radha. The spectators,
all Chaitanya's followers, sat on all four sides of the performance
space; the green room was situated at a little distance. At least one
source of lighting was a torch held by a stagehand who moved with the
performers. There exist only two more references to early song-and-
dance performances within the fold of Vaisnavism. One is from Sylhet,
in the first half of the 16th century, which may have given rise to
ghatu gan of mymensingh. The other, from the second half of the same
century, to a form referred to as Shekhari Jatra featuring Radha,
soon became extinct. By the late 17th century, these early attempts
matured into what is known as Pala Kirtana in Bangladesh today.
Supra-personae forms The masked dance of the Gambhira festival was
originally an ancient shamanist or spirit cult performance of the
Koch community. By the 9th century, the Tantric Buddhists in Bengal
assimilated the performance to evolve their own forms of masked
dance, which were similar to Astamatrika Dance, Mahakali Pyayakhan,
Devi Pyayakhan (Kathmandu, Nepal) and Tibetan Buddhist masked dances.
These dances were performed in the Buddhist monasteries during
religious festivals, very much as in Tibetan and Nepalese practice.
These performances were given at the year-ending celebration of
chaitra sangkranti and were given after processional performances.
By the end of the 12th century, when Tantric Saivism in Bengal had
assimilated decaying Tantric Buddhism, Buddhist masked dances were
also adapted to give rise to Mahakali Pyayakhan, Devi Pyayakhan and
similar dances. Tantric Saivite masked dances in Bengal, unlike those
of Kathmandu Valley (Nepal), decayed because of Muslim conquest. What
remains today can be seen in Mukho Nacha, Kali Kach, Gambhira
festival and Sang Jatra.
Performance with scroll painting The existence of patuya sangit
(performances with scroll paintings) in ancient Bengal is confirmed
by two sources: Yama-pattika as referred to in Harsa-charita (7th c
AD) and scroll painting of the santals. Banabhatta (the court-poet of
Harsavardhan) in his Harsa-charita briefly describes a popular
performance of Yama-pattaka witnessed by Harsavardhan on his way back
to the capital after he learnt of the death of his brother. It was
given by a performer with the help of a scroll-painting showing Yama,
the King of the Underworld. On the other hand, recent ethnographic
studies have shown that the Santal people have among them a type of
scroll painting representing the origin of life (Ko Reyak Katha) and
the passage of the dead from the mortal world to the life beyond
(Chaksudan Pat). These too point to the ancient origin of Patuya Gan
performances in Bengal. In the medieval period, scroll painting
performances eulogising Ramachandra, Krishna, Manasa, Chandi were
extremely popular. By the 18th century, scroll-painting performances
gained popularity even among the Muslims, as evinced by Gazir Pat
(scroll-painting performances eulogising Pir Gazi), which can still
be seen in Bangladesh today.
Puppet theatre It is not known when puppet theatre was introduced in
Bengal. The earliest extant literary evidence of the existence of the
form in Bengal is a couplet in Yusuf-Zulekha (1391-1410). As
signified there, these performances were given with the help of
string puppets. It is possible that orally composed tales of gods and
goddesses, such as those of Krishna, Rama, Manasa etc, were produced
in these performances. Mukunda Chakravarti'
and krishnadas kaviraj's chaitanya charitamrita (c 1560-80)
definitely point to the existence of puppet theatre during this
period. Judging by the popularity of cults and the existing tradition
among current performers, it could be safely assumed that these were
related to Krishna, Rama, Manasa, Chandi and Chaitanya.
Interestingly, no Islamic narrative ever seems to have been performed
by puppets in Bengal. String puppets still exist in Bangladesh today.
Processional Forms Processional performances are characterised by the
use of tableaux, music, song and dance, all of which form a part of
large processions (jatra) attended by adherents of a particular
religious faith. In many ways, these performances hold the key to the
history of indigenous theatre because they brought together all the
three types discussed above, to give birth to jatra, the most popular
form of the indigenous theatre which can claim to be indeed the
national theatre idiom.
From the description provided by fa-hien during his visit to India
(399 to 414 AD), it is known that on the 8th day of the second month
(roughly the last week of May), a highly popular Buddhist religious
festival used to be held in Pataliputra. In it, a number of well-
decorated chariots (ratha) with the image of the Buddha and other
deities installed within, were drawn through the streets and were
accompanied by 'singers and skilful musicians'. Hiuen Tsiang
witnessed similar festivals at Kanauj and Allahabad. Harsavardhan
himself accompanied the procession dressed as Indra, and his friend,
Bhaskaravarman, the king of kamarupa (assam), appeared disguised as
brahma. Each day of the festival opened with lavish performances of
dance and music, vocal and instrumental. I-Tsing also reports about
similar processions in samatata (eastern Bangladesh) in the second
half of the 7th century. These evidences clearly point to the
existence of Buddhist processional performances in the 7th century
Bengal, which featured chariots with images of deities, song, music,
dance and character impersonation (such as Indra and Brahma). At the
end of these processions, masked dance and narrative performances
were given in the monasteries. The existence of Matsendranatha Jatra
in Nepal makes it possible to believe that the followers of the Natha
cult in Bengal may also have developed their own procession in 10th
or 11th century.
By the early 12th century, processional performances had spread among
the followers of the Dharma cult. Extant literary and liturgical
texts and current practice among the followers of the cult indicate
that in the 12th century, its followers participated in religious
celebrations, which included processional performance. The
processions would be led by 'the sandal of Dharma (placed) on a
golden palanquin', followed by music (played on various instruments)
song and dance of the devotee. The processions also included a sang,
ie, a clown with a painted face (or wearing a mask) and dressed as a
mythical character. The clown may also be seen today in Dharmer Gajan
processions. The clown of ancient Dharmer Gajan processions possibly
performed brief mimetic dance pieces which depicted legends related
to the cult. In all probability, these performances would begin from
the temples of dharma thakur, circumambulate neighbouring habitations
and end at the temple again. There, narrative performances and masked
dances were held in honour of deities of the cult.
By the end of the 12th century, Tantric Saivism had assimilated the
Tantric Buddhist and the Dharma cult processions. Tantric Saivite
processions, given as a year-ending celebration of Chaitra Samkranti,
included impersonation of various deities, mythical heroes, animals
and supernatural beings singing and dancing to music played on drums
and cymbals. The processions began from Saivite temples,
circumambulated neighbouring habitations and ended at the point of
origin. Ritualistic and masked dances would be given at temple
precincts in the evening and would continue through the night.
Remnants of these ancient performances, known as Shiver Gajan, Niler
Gajan, and processions of Sang Jatra and Astak Jatra, can still be
seen in Bangladesh.
Possibly around the 14th century, the Shakta cult was beginning to
incorporate processional performances into its fold. Kalika-purana
specifies that the celebration in honour of Kali (in her
manifestation as Durga, the slayer of Mahisasura) is to culminate on
the 10th day with a procession for immersion of the idol (visarjana).
The procession is to be made up of virgins and courtesans well-versed
in music, performers (nata) and musicians who are to play sangkha,
turi, mrdanga and dhak. Others are to carry colourful flags, scatter
fluffed rice (khai), flower, dust and mud. It is also prescribed that
erotic conduct is to prevail in absolute carnivalesque abandon in
order to please the goddess. It is possible, as recent ethnological
studies reveal, that some form of performance would also be given in
temple precincts after the procession. By the late medieval period,
the Sakta cult had developed a large number of processional
performances. Bamakesvar-tantra (a Tantric text) specifies sixteen
processions to be taken out annually in honour of the goddess
Bhagavati.
By the 16th century, processional performances were immensely popular
among the Vaisnavites as well. Raghunandan, a famous smrti scholar
from 15th-16th century, ruled twelve processions in honour of vishnu.
The Vaisnavite processional performances gradually incorporated
tableaux of Vaisnavite mythologies placed on chariots drawn by
devotees and characters representing major mythological characters
accompanying the procession on foot. During his lifetime, Chaitanya
brought out processions accompanied by singing and dancing of his
followers, for mobilising mass support. Vaisnavite processional
performances still exist in Bangladesh today in the form of
Janmastami Michhil in dhaka (initiated in 1555) and Nauka-vilas
Michhil in tangail (possibly acculturated from ancient
Buddhist/Dharma cult practice).
The Vaisnavites (particularly the Gaudiya Vaisnavites) are to be
credited with further development of the processional performance.
During his residence at Puri, Chaitanya and his followers enacted a
curious form of performance, best described as 'environmental'
has been recounted in Chaitanya Charitamrta (Part II, Chapter 15). In
one of these, they appeared in a procession at a festival site,
dressed as Hanumana and his army of monkeys. There they enacted an
excerpt from the Ramayana (the attack on and the destruction of the
castle of Lanka), on a locale that was created in advance at the
festival site. References to similar performances have also been
given in the Chaitanya Bhagavata, where it is described that in their
childhood, Nityananda and his friends play-acted various tales of
Rama and Krishna. In these, the locale of each scene was created in
advance in natural environs in a manner similar to Rama Lila of north
India. At some time during the lifetime of Chaitanya, the
processional performances got linked with the environmental so that
the performers and the spectators moved bodily in procession from one
locale to another. Narayan Bhatta, a disciple of the 16th century
goswamins or ascetics, Rupa and Sanatana, is credited with having
established Bana jatra in the countryside of Braja (north India). In
Bana jatra, devotees moved in procession to spots where Krishna lilas
are believed to have occurred; in each spot, young boys enacted a
particular lila associated with the spot. After Chaitanya's death,
processional-
associated with Krishna (such as the slaying of the Kaliya serpent)
appear to have continued and can still be seen today in nauka-vilas
michhil of Tangail. Some scholars believe that similar performances
existed in the Shakta fold as well, in the form of Chandi Jatra, the
content of which was based on Chandimangala.
The basic characteristics of these processional-
performances were (i) the enactment of each scene in separate out-
door environs specially created or adapted from natural sites and
(ii) processions of spectators who accompanied the performers from
one environment to another. Generally, these performances were given
during religious festivities and celebrations as a part of
processions in honour of the cult deity. By the end of the medieval
period, the Buddhist-Dharma-
ancient period (which entailed narrative performances and masked
dances at the end of the procession in temples/monasteries
evolved into Vaisnavite processional-
(which incorporated performances in specific natural environs).
During the evolution, the two performances were linked by the
processional performances of the Tantric Saiva-Sakta cult.
By the second half of the 18th century, professional performance
troupes began to produce various lilas of Krishna not in actual
environs but in nat-mandapas or courtyards of rural homesteads and
public grounds, that is, any 'non-environmental' space. More
importantly, these began to be given not only on religious festivals
but also on other days as desired by sponsors. Generally known as
kaliya-daman jatra, these performances may have had some interaction
with the court-sponsored Sanskrit theatre of Nabadwip. The kaliya-
daman texts were based on Krishna legends, drawn from the puranas and
popular sources. Kaliya-daman jatra was predominantly lyrical. The
adhikari (regisseur or proprietor of the troupe) played the role of
Vrinda (a companion of Radha) or Muni Gonsai (Narada) and guided the
entire action like a sutradhara by narrating parts of the action in
improvised prose and pre-composed verse and lyric. The other parts
were rendered as dialogue between him/her and various characters.
Shishuram Adhikari (c mid-18th century) was possibly the earliest
exponent of the form. Concurrently with kaliya-daman jatra, a few
more forms were also popular in Bengal, all of which were similar in
form but varied in content. These were Chaitanya jatra (based on the
life of Chaitanya), Chandi jatra (with content drawn from
Chandimangala) and Rama jatra (with content drawn from the Ramayana).
By the early 19th century there evolved the Bhasan jatra, the content
of which was drawn from Manasamangala. However, vestiges of medieval
processional-
which the rasa dance of Krishna and the milkmaids was enacted.
Kaliya-daman jatra lost its popularity after 1840s, to be replaced by
Krishna jatra, which can still be seen in Bangladesh. Although both
the forms were based on Krishna lila, the texts of Krishna jatra were
entirely dialogic, with a greater portion being in prose. Its
popularity faded after the early 20th century. Similar structural
changes affected Chandi jatra and Bhasan jatra as well. The latter
still exists in Bangladesh.
The first half of the 19th century ushered in a qualitative
transformation in the social life of the Bengalis belonging to the
Hindu community, especially in urban areas such as calcutta. The
essence of the change can be summed up as laying greater emphasis on
the material as opposed to the spiritual and Eurocentricism as
opposed to tradition-bound conservatism. A section of the indigenous
theatre based in Kolkata responded to the social changes. Thus from
Krishna jatra arose natun jatra (lit. 'new jatra') in the 1820s.
Natun jatra aimed entirely at secular entertainment by enacting
pseudo-mythological tales with emphasis on the human aspects (such as
vidyasundar) but its structure was similar to Krishna jatra. Natun
jatra performances were given by professional troupes, the most
famous of which was that of Gopal Ude (1819-1859). In the 1860s, the
sizzling sensation of natun jatra began to wear out and gitabhinay
appeared, which projected a curious blend of bhakti from Krishna
jatra, merriment from natun jatra and pathos from European-influenced
Bangla theatre. Gradually, gitabhinay reduced emphasis on lyric and
dance, and, in its place, prose dialogue began to play a more
dominant role. In terms of plot construction, it gradually began to
assimilate techniques of building action based on conflict, from the
European theatre. However, its content was drawn from Hindu
mythology. The rise of Neo-Hinduism in the 1870s brought about a
temporary reversal by reinstating the spiritual and religious
tradition. Consequently, there grew a demand for performances which
would promote religious devotion. Madanmohan Chattapadhyay responded
to the demand and reformed natun jatra by drawing elements from
gitabhinay. Known as Pauranic jatra (lit 'mythological jatra'), the
new form drew its content from the Ramayana, the Bhagavata, the
Brahma-vaivarta Purana, the Harivangsha, etc.
The partition of bengal (1905) raised the question of nationalism to
the forefront. Consequently, social life in Bengal witnessed a surge
of interest on the theme of national identity. This trend is
reflected in the indigenous theatre with the evolution of aitihasik
jatra (lit. 'historic jatra'), and swadeshi jatra (lit. 'nationalist
jatra'). Whereas aitihasik jatra drew its content from semi-
historical stories, swadeshi jatra incorporated contemporary issues
such as colonial exploitation, patriotism, anti-colonial struggle,
oppression of feudal lords etc. The latter, under the guidance of
actor-playwright Mukunda Das, earned unprecedented popularity in
Bengal. The colonial government banned three of his plays and he
himself faced imprisonment.
From the 1920s, jatra failed to respond to the rising heat in the
political arena and chose to dwell safely on mythologies and
histories. From the mid-20th century, jatra turned to social themes
and reflected crises in family life in confrontation with society.
Popularly known as samajik jatra, it did raise questions of Hindu-
Muslim relationships, but the approach was sentimental rather than
analytical. The jatra is a spent force today, and its principal
device to arouse public interest is erotic song-and-dance numbers.
No major innovation can be noticed among the 'Islamic' forms in the
19th and the 20th centuries. The number of followers of Pir Madar
declined sharply after their rebellion failed. Performances related
to Khwaja Khizir also declined after the rise of the Islamic reform
movement of the Faraizis (1818-1860s)
purity of Islam. Performances related to the three other pirs managed
to survive in pockets where the faraizi movement was relatively weak:
Gazi (around Sundarban Forest), Satya (in Dinajpur-Rangpur-
belt) and Manik (in Khulna-Jessore belt). The followers of the last
three pirs were drawn into the rising popularity of jatra
performances and, by the mid-19th century, evolved Gazir jatra, Satya
Pirer jatra and Manik Pirer jatra. These forms can still be seen in
Bangladesh.
European theatre Political and economic measures undertaken by the
English colonisers from 1757 onwards led to the bengal renaissance in
the early 19th century, which affected all aspects of intellectual
pursuits in Bengal. Its immediate effect was a bifurcation of society
into the rural and urban cultures. The elitist urban culture and the
European theatre of the economically powerful minority fashioned
itself around European models. It demonstrated tremendous vitality,
opened new directions, but, as in most cases, also lost touch with
the majority and their rural culture. The indigenous theatre, which
in most cases remained a part of the rural culture, has failed to
meet the demands of the 21st century life in Bangladesh and a process
of fossilisation has already set in. On the other hand, the European
theatre has been dynamic because the elite urban intelligentsia, who
have been responding to the needs of urban spectators, have sustained
it.
Until 1947, the theatre of the urban elite in Bengal was centred in
Calcutta, the economic and political seat of power of 19th century
India. With the creation of Pakistan, Dhaka gained importance as the
urban cultural centre of eastern Bengal and continued its dominance
in independent Bangladesh. In the following section, the history of
theatre of undivided Bengal will be traced until 1947, following
which it will focus on eastern Bengal, later Bangladesh.
Introduction of European theatre The earliest known English theatre
in Bengal, a proscenium playhouse known as 'The Theatre', was built
in Calcutta in 1753 and was closed following Nawab sirajuddaula'
attack on the city in 1756. In 1775 'The New Playhouse', also
called 'The Calcutta Theatre', came up. Until 1808, when it went out
of business, the theatre performed Shakespeare, Massinger, Congreve,
Sheridan etc. Initially, male actors performed female roles but the
practice soon gave way to female performers. A host of other
proscenium playhouses soon followed, of which the Chowrangee Theatre
(1813-39) and the Sans Souci Theatre (1839-1849) gained wide fame and
renown. dwarkanath tagore was the only Bengali associated with the
Chowrangee and he later purchased the theatre. However, until the day
the Chowrangee was burnt down, the English managed it, produced
English plays (Sheridan, Goldsmith, Shakespeare and other popular
plays from the London stage) and the performers were all English.
However, by the time of the Sans Souci, Bengali participation was on
the rise. A number of Bengalis were associated with it and a Bengali
performed the title role in Othello (1848), although all the other
performers were English. However, the Sans Souci too performed only
English plays. The English theatre continued in the second half of
the 19th century, but lost its significance due to the rise of native
Bangla theatre.
Imitation, assimilation and formation The first performance of a play
in Bangla, on a proscenium stage, by an all-native cast (both male
and female), was produced by a Russian named gerasim stepanovitch
lebedeff (1749-1817), on 27 November, 1795. The play, a translation
of Richard Jodrell's comedy, The Disguise, was performed at the
Bengally Theatre at 25 Doomtullah (presently Ezra) Street, Calcutta.
Lebedeff himself translated the play. Although the cost of admission
was high, the interest of Bengali spectators can be gauged from the
full house the performance enjoyed.
In the first half of the 19th century, colonial educational
institutions such as Hindu college and Oriental Seminary played the
most influential role in disseminating interest in European theatre.
As a part of the newly introduced educational curricula in the
schools and colleges, Shakespeare soon assumed the position of an
ideal model. After a few stray attempts in the first half of the 19th
century, the proscenium theatre was considered fashionable enough to
be sponsored by affluent zamindars as private theatre in and around
the mid-19th century. The most important of these was the Belgachia
Theatre (1858-1861), credited as being the first permanent proscenium
theatre of Bengal, which was built by the Rajas of Paikpara at their
Belgachia Villa. The theatre took pride in its quality orchestra,
fine perspective backdrops, gas-lanterns, and limelight.
From the mid-19th century, Bengalis began attempts at assimilating
European dramaturgy. Michael Madhusudan Dutt paved the way for future
playwrights by successfully demonstrating the techniques of European
dramaturgy with plays such as Sharmistha (premiered at the Belgachia
where he made his debut in 1859), Padmavati (published 1860,
premiered 1865) and a historical tragedy titled Krishna Kumari
(published 1861, premiered 1867). Madhusudan shines most brilliantly
with his farces, where the language is easy, the attack is sharp and
relevant, and the characters are drawn distinctly. In Ekei Ki Bale
Sabhyata (published 1860, premiered 1865), he ridicules the ultra-
progressive Young Turks who blindly copied European culture and in
Buda Shaliker Ghade Ron (published 1860, premiered 1867), he aims at
unmasking the hypocrisy of the affluent. Ironically, the Sanskrit
theatre, whose fetters he tried to break, tightened its grip on his
last play, Mayakanan (1874).
dinabandhu mitra (1830-1873), a contemporary of Madhusudan Dutt,
wrote Nildarpan (1860), which effectively deals with the ruthless
exploitation of Bengal peasants by the powerful English indigo
planters in rural Bengal. Considered a realistic play of popular
protest by many, the play is in effect melodramatic in its treatment
of blood and torture but its content reflected contemporary social
reality in a manner meaningful to urban middle-class Bengali society.
Although he composed a number of other plays, Mitra is also
celebrated as 'a veritable magician of laughter' for his farces: Biye
Pagla Buda (1866), Sadhabar Ekadashi (1866) and Jamai Barik (1871).
Early years of the public theatre (1870s-1920s) On 7 December 1872,
history was made with the opening of the first public playhouse in
Bengal, the National Theatre, with Mitra's Niladarpana. The playhouse
with its proscenium stage was a temporary construction in the
courtyard of a private residence in Calcutta and was formed by a
group of theatre-crazy youths belonging to Baghbazar Amateur Theatre
(1869-1872), some of whom were to become stars of professional
theatre in the next few years. The public playhouse opened European
theatre to the urban middle class. No longer the handmaid of the
affluent, the theatre was free to serve a wider public and thereby
gain strength and maturity. The Bengal Theatre, which opened in 1873,
was the first permanent playhouse with a proscenium stage in Bengal.
The maiden performance of Bengal Theatre, Madhusudan's Sarmistha,
also created history because for the first time in professional
European theatre, female performers (Jagattarini, Golap, Elokeshi and
Shyama) enacted female roles. Gaslight was used to light these
playhouses until 1887 when dynamo-produced electric lighting was
introduced for the first time at the Emerald Theatre. Stage locales
were usually established with the help of painted wings and
backdrops. In playwriting, the five-act romantic tragedy, especially
that of Shakespeare, was the model. The acting was mostly declamatory
and melodramatic. At the risk of oversimplification, one may describe
the productions as escapist entertainment in which songs and dances
of dancing girls (sakhis) and other sensational contrivances were
indispensable elements.
Soon after its inception, public theatre faced the wrath of the
British Raj when the Great National Theatre staged a farce named
Gajananda O Yubaraj (19 February 1876). The play was immediately
banned. Soon after, the British government passed the Dramatic
Performance Control Act of 1876, which empowered it to 'prohibit
certain dramatic performances, which are scandalous, defamatory,
seditious, obscene or otherwise'. The Act was repealed in 2001. As
for the public theatre of Calcutta, it found political criticism too
hot to handle and the wrath of the state too strong to defend with
its tinsel arms. Hence, after the first skirmish, for the most part
it chose to play shy, even when faced with the swadeshi movement
beginning in 1905. The major exceptions were some of the historical
plays of girish chandra ghosh (1844-1912) and dwijendralal roy (1863-
1913).
The second half of the 19th century saw a gradual rise of religious
revivalism and traditionalism within the urban middle-class Bengali
Hindu society in Calcutta. In theatre, the trend was reflected in
plays by girish chandra ghosh, an exceptionally versatile actor and
director of high merit. He wrote about seventy plays, many of which
were based on mythological tales, lives of saints and religious
heroes and projected intense devotional fervour. An example of these
is Chaitanya Lila, based on the life of Chaitanya. Whereas Michael
Madhusudan and Mitra strove to emulate European dramaturgy both in
form and spirit, Girish Chandra Ghosh chose only the form (for him,
Shakespeare)
on Krttivas's Ramayana and Kashiram Das's Mahabharata. It is only in
his social and historical plays (Prafulla and Sirajuddaula,
respectively) that Ghosh manages to extricate himself from a
revivalist fervour. He is also credited for introducing psychological
dimension in character interpretation, acting, and training of
performers.
From about 1900 until the Great War, historical plays, often based on
patriotic themes began to dominate the scene. Although Girish Chandra
Ghosh continued to exert his influence, Dwijendralal Roy was an equal
if not a greater factor to be considered. A good example of an
intellectual of the colonial period who successfully assimilated the
culture of the ruling race, Roy was not directly attached to any
theatre. Infused with patriotism that was at once secular and
humanist, he redirected the attention of his spectators to the
spiritual realm of humanity. Some of Roy's better known plays are
Rana Pratap Singha (1905), Nurjahan (1908) and Shajahan (1909).
Beside the mythological and historical plays mentioned above, the
period also produced social dramas, domestic comedies, and gitabhinay
musicals. Two other playwrights of this period were jyotirindranath
tagore (1849-1925), and amrita lal basu (1852-1929). Jyotirindranath
contributed a number of quality translations (Julius Caesar, Le
Bourgeois Gentilhomme etc) and historical plays. Amrita Lal Basu,
also a well-known actor, earned his fame for his farces, which
ridiculed the influence of European culture on Bengali society.
Blending of the indigenous and the European: Rabindranath Tagore
Parallel to Girish Chandra Ghosh, Dwijendra Lal Roy and others in the
public theatre but distinctly independent, rabindranath tagore (1861-
1941) wrote and directed plays that were unique for their blend of
the indigenous and the European - a blend so subtle that it almost
appears organic. The form of theatre which Tagore evolved in his so-
called symbolic-allegoric plays is a fusion of the song-and-dance (in
the abundant use of song and in the absence of cause-and-effect
formula for building action) and the European dramaturgy (in the use
of conflict and a few techniques in building character). The conflict
of spirit and matter that drives Raktakarabi (1926) and Muktadhara
(1922), also Achalayatan (1922) to a large extent, disappears after
the battle in Raja (1911) and is hardly present in Dakghar (1912).
The influence of the song-and-dance tradition continues in Basanta
(1923), Nabin (1931) and Shrabanagantha (1934). The absence of
dramatic conflict is so apparent that a few scholars have refused to
acknowledge them as plays.
Finally, in Chitrangada (1936), Chandalika (1938) and Shyama (1939),
when he successfully blends the song-and-dance tradition, plays low
on dramatic conflict and instead focuses on rasa, the influence of
the indigenous is more than apparent. Vocal against the painted
backdrop and the proscenium frame, Tagore preferred an intimate
performance space like that of the jatra. His work, other than a few
farces, mostly proved failures in the public theatre on the rare
occasions when they were performed until the 1950s when Bahurupi, a
theatre group in Calcutta, performed them. Nevertheless, his work has
proved to be immensely influential on theatre practitioners and in
literary circles.
ocial concerns and nationalism (1920s-1940s) The First World War and
the death of the two stalwarts, Girish Chandra Ghosh and Dwijendralal
Roy, saw a decline in the public theatre. When it began to revive
again in the 20s, a qualitative change was noticeable. Socially,
theatre began to be accepted by the cultured elite as an artistic
medium, and an increasing number of persons with institutional
education began to take up theatre as a serious artistic career.
Plays on social themes began to attract greater attention than those
on historical and mythological themes. The five-act model began to
give way to the techniques of Ibsen and Shaw. The mythological plays
that survived shifted focus from the supernatural to the human, while
the historical plays attempted to project historical accuracy instead
of melodramatic heroism.
The shift of emphasis was noticeable in production style as well. The
acting style, pioneered by shishir kumar bhaduri (1889-1959), became
less declamatory and more natural. Ensemble acting, meaningful
composition, and non-melodramatic speech began to acquire importance.
Picture-frame illusion of contemporary social life began to acquire
increasing dominance. In 1931, Satu Sen returned from America to
revolutionise lighting and set design in the Calcutta-based Bengali
theatre. Foot-lights gave way to overhead directional lighting. The
painted backdrop began to be replaced with the 'Box set'. Historical
accuracy in costume and set design gradually replaced anachronism.
Background music played by a live orchestra began to take on a more
subdued note. The quality of songs and dances improved, and the
indispensable troupe of dancing girls (sakhis) of the previous era
gradually disappeared. The period also marked the emergence of the
director as a co-ordinator who sought meaningful unity of all
elements of a production.
Important playwrights of this period were manmatha roy (1899-1988),
sachindra nath sengupta (1892-1961) and Bidhayak Bhattacharya (1907-
1986). Manmatha Roy shot into prominence in 1923 with his one-act
play, Muktir Dak, and set the trend of one-acters. Roy's plays bore
contemporary relevance and reflected current issues, although he made
use of mythological and historical materials. In Karagar (1930),
banned by the British Government, he uses a familiar mythological
tale from the Bhagavata Purana to project Krishna as the liberator
from Kangsha's oppressive regime. Shachindranath Sengupta is
remembered for his historical play Gairik Pataka, which passionately
proclaimed patriotism when the Civil Disobedience Movement was at its
height. However, Sengupta's primary contribution to Bengali theatre
was the change he initiated both in content and form in plays on
social themes. Here he abandoned the five-act structure and attempted
to depict the psychology of his characters. In Jhader Rat (1931), an
avant-garde play of his time, Sengupta probed into feminine
psychology and championed the emancipation of women. Bidhayak
bhattacharya, who made his public appearance with the social play
Meghamukti (1938), is also well known for his depiction of the urban
middle class in a changing society and the resulting clash of values
in family life experienced during the 30s and the 40s. Some of his
well-known plays are Matir Ghar (1939), Bish Bachhar Age (1939),
Rakter Dak (1941) and a few others.
However, even with the best of Manmatha Roy, Shachindranath Sengupta
and Bidhayak Bhattacharya, the public playhouses of Calcutta failed
to project critical consciousness regarding contemporary social and
political reality. Leading artists with socio-political concerns
attempted to join hands successively through the Progressive Writers'
Association (1936) and the Anti-Fascist Writers' and Artistes' Union
(1942), without significant success. Finally, the Indian People's
Theatre Association (IPTA; 1943) organised the city-based artists in
an honest attempt to join the rank and file. Soon after its creation,
Bengal was faced with a man-made spectre: the famine of 1943, which
left 5 million dead. Faced with the reality of hunger and death, the
Bengal branch of IPTA produced bijan bhattacharya'
which had a far-reaching influence on Bengali theatre. It initiated a
new era of play- writing (by projecting immediate reality in familiar
language) and acting (that was closer to daily life). Primarily it
challenged the role and function of theatre practitioners in society
and infused political direction in theatre. The post-Nabanna theatre
of Calcutta created the trend of Group Theatre, ie, ideologically
motivated groups of theatre activists who strove to attain artistic
excellence as well as socio-political relevance in their work. Since
such a concept of theatre was not economically viable, they chose not
to accept payment for their work and therefore, for their daily
sustenance, sought alternative employment.
East Pakistan: from crisis in identity to explosion (1947-1971)
Inception of the European theatre in East Bengal took place in 1855
with a performance of Svarna Shrnkhal by durgadas kar at Barisal.
However, until 1947, Calcutta was the centre of theatre and was
emulated by the rest of Bengal. Theatre was dominated by middle-class
Bengali Hindus. Their exodus to India after the creation of Pakistan
in 1947 created fresh avenues for the urban Muslims, who till then
had been placed in the political, economic and social backwaters. The
theatre of the new country was slowly but decisively moving towards
polarisation of two opposing camps: (i) the religion-based
nationalists and (ii) the language-based nationalists. The religion-
based trend was dominant in the urban areas outside Dhaka. It sought
to glorify Islamic history through historical plays on Muslim rulers
of the Middle East, India and Bengal, and the independence struggle
of Pakistan. Important playwrights of this trend were Akbaruddin
(1895-1978), ibrahim khan (1894-1978) and Ibrahim Khalil (1916- ).
The second trend was dominant mainly in Dhaka city and playwrights
belonging to this trend were also linked with Dhaka University-based
play productions. Important among them were shawkat osman (1917-
1998), nurul momen (1906-1989), Askar Ibne Shaikh (1925), jasimuddin
(1903-1976) and munier chowdhury (1925-1971). In play production,
Dhaka University students, with their progressive outlook, led the
rest of the country. Almost all the plays produced at the University
were written by, or adapted from the novels of, Rabindranath Tagore,
sharat chandra chattopahdyay, tarashankar bandyopadhyay, Nurul momen,
Askar Ibne Shaikh and Munier Chowdhury and had a social content.
Except for a few scattered attempts, amateur groups produced all
performances.
The language movement of 1952 worked as a catalyst for further
intensifying the political polarisation of the language-based and the
religious-based camps. In the theatre scene, there was a marked rise
in social awareness and political commitment in the language-based
nationalist camp. They continued their dominance in Dhaka city, with
the university as their bastion. Munier Chowdhury wrote his epoch-
making Kabar as a political prisoner in the Dhaka Central Jail, and
it was performed by other political prisoners on 21 February 1953.
Although the play reveals a strong influence of Irwin Shaw's Bury the
Dead, it has remained one of the most important theatre pieces for
its simplicity and social relevance. The play was performed at night
by the prison inmates who improvised their set on a shoestring budget
and were forced to use hurricane lanterns, lamps, and matchsticks as
their lighting source. The essential appeal of the play lies in its
central political issue (the inalienable right of a people to its
cultural heritage) and poignant human suffering (police brutality and
massacre).
In 1956 the Drama Circle was created. This was an amateur group of
passionately committed young theatre activists, who played an
important role in introducing contemporary Euro-American design
concepts and performance techniques through their productions of
European classics, contemporary American and local plays. akm bazlul
karim (d 1977), associated with the group since its inception, is
still remembered for his dedication and directorial excellence.
Martial Law was clamped down in 1958, effectively silencing the
growing demand for social justice and political rights voiced by the
language-based nationalists. Consequently, theatre in general lay
impoverished in terms of socio-political awareness, concentrating
more on plays toeing the central government's policy of religion-
based nationalism or experimental work which were overtly 'subtle'
or 'neutral'. In Dhaka city as well as district towns, the number of
productions grew considerably. These were mostly run-of-the-mill
social plays, along with some historical and mythological plays.
There was also a short-lived attempt at professional theatre housed
at the Minerva Theatre (1957-1964). Major experimental playwrights
were syed waliullah (1922-1971) and Saeed Ahmed (b 1931). Waliullah
brought to his work (Bahipir, Taranga Bhanga and Ujane Mrtyu) a
European artistic sensibility and insight that had been hitherto
unknown in Bangla theatre. Often termed a symbolist, Waliullah's
symbolism is far removed from that of Maeterlinck or Tagore because
of a strong materialist bias and the absence of spiritualism. Saeed
Ahmed's Kalbela (The Thing, 1966) is a milestone in the theatre of
South Asia for it introduced the theatre of the absurd for the first
time. Later, he came up with two more plays that were avant-garde:
Milepost and Trsnay. Zia Hyder's (b 1936) Shuvra Sundar Kalyani
Ananda is another important avant-garde addition to contemporary
theatre, where he seeks to explore the myth of peace in human society.
A popular uprising in 1969 cracked the central government's
authoritative and suppressive rule. Politically conscious theatre
activists responded to the growing language-based nationalist
movement with street-plays and open-air performances that projected
militant nationalist sentiment. Surprisingly, there were no organised
attempts in putting up plays during the war of liberation either in
the liberated areas or in the refugee camps in India.
Bangladesh: the flowering that was not (1971-1999) Theatre was
possibly the most forceful and exuberant expression of post-
liberation Bangladesh. Numerous non-professional theatre groups were
formed all over the country, modelled after the group theatre
movement in post-Nabanna Calcutta. The most important among these in
Dhaka city were Theatre (established February 1972), Nagarik Natya
Sampraday (established 1968, first performance August 1972),
Natyachakra (established August 1972), Aranyak Natyadal (established
1972), Dhaka Theatre (established July 1973) and, in Chittagong,
Theatre '73 (established 1973), and Arindam (established September
1974).
All these groups are committed to a language-based nationalism and,
in varying degrees, believe in raising social consciousness through
theatre. Most of the members are students, while a few belong to
independent vocations. There are no professional theatre
practitioners because the profession is not economically viable.
During the early years of theatre in Bangladesh, none of the
practitioners had formal training in theatre. However, they made up
this deficiency with their zeal and exuberance. They raised the money
for their productions through individual contributions,
advertisements inserted in programme folders and box-office sales.
Undaunted by the absence of a proscenium stage equipped with modern
technical facilities, the theatre groups staged their productions in
the small and poorly equipped Mahila Samity Auditorium that had
originally been built for seminars. The range of texts performed by
the groups varied widely: from Euro-American plays to contemporary
originals written by group members themselves. A completely new set
of playwrights appeared, important among whom were Abdullah al-Mamun,
Mamunur Rashid, Syed Shamsul Huq, Salim al-Deen, Mumtazuddin Ahmed
and SM Solaiman.
The post-liberation exuberance in theatre met complete saturation by
the early 80s when the middle-class practitioners found it difficult
to make ends meet with the little money performance generated.
However, there were also developments in various directions.
Possibly, the most significant of these was the induction of a number
of theatre practitioners trained abroad, who added technique and
skill to acting, design, and direction. By the end of the decade,
three universities had theatre as a course of study: Chittagong
University (introduced in 1970), jahangirnagar university (introduced
in 1986) and the University of Dhaka (introduced in 1989). Two more
institutes were also functioning by then: Natya Shikshangan (1976)
and Theatre School (1990). Faced with autocratic rule in the
political arena, many groups also took up theatre as a viable medium
for popular protest. Significant among these were Jago Laksa Nur
Hosain by Karak Natya Sampraday, Royal Bengal Tiger by Lokanatya Dal
and Maharajer Gunakirtan by Desh Natak. Another important area of
proliferation was the Mukta Natak movement initiated by Aranyak, in
which members of the group (animateurs) sought to conscientise rural
landless peasants and create performances with them. In mainstream
theatre, the most interesting development was the attempt taken up by
Dhaka Theatre and a number of other groups to incorporate indigenous
performance elements in modern theatre practice in productions such
as Keramat Mangal and Hat Hadai by Salim al-Deen (produced by Dhaka
Theatre), Mahuyar Pala by Nazmul Ahsan (produced by Khulna Theatre)
and Inggit and Ei Deshe Ei Beshe by S M Solaiman (produced by Dhaka
Padatik).
During the 90s, three important attempts were made towards creating
professional theatre: Bangla Theatre (1991), Theatre Art (1992) and
the Centre for Asian Theatre (1994). All these, save the last, have
failed. Although Aranyak's Mukta Natak movement has lost all its
energy, theatre is being used by non-government organisations for
addressing issues related to development. There have been some
interesting productions, which include Chaka by Salim al-Deen
(produced by Dhaka Theatre), adaptation of bisad-sindhu by mir
mosharraf hossain (produced by Dhaka Padatik), Shes Sanglap by the
Egyptian playwright Tawfiq al-Hakim (produced by Ganayana), Meraj
Fakirer Ma by Abdullah al-Mamun (produced by Theatre), Irsa by Syed
Shamsul Huq (produced by Nagarik), Kamalaranir Sagar Dighi (produced
by the Department of Theatre and Music, University of Dhaka), an
adaptation of Arthur Miller's Crucible (produced by Natyakendra) and
Nitya Purana by Masum Reza (produced by Desh Natak).
n 2001, urban theatre in Bangladesh has lost much of its ideological
commitment and is gradually being marginalised. The middle-class
practitioners who bore the burden of performing for passion appear to
have run out of steam. In an increasingly free-market economy and
globalised cultural sway, theatre may soon find itself redundant. One
option for it to survive is to turn professional, but it does not
seem economically viable in the near future. The other option is to
trust popular instinct. It has managed to survive against many odds
for over fifteen centuries; surely it will survive as a cultural
expression of the people*.
BANGLADESH THEATRE in 2003-2004
MOFIDUL HOQUE
Bengali New Year is celebrated in Bangladesh in mid-April and the
Bengali calendar unfolds six seasons in a year. The subtle change of
season is not well defined but one can have the feel of it. Likewise
in Bangladesh there is nothing called the theatre season, it is not
well-defined, but one can have the feel of it. The show goes on
throughout the year, there is no recess or official beginning of the
new season; but in practice, although not recognized distinctly, the
theatre season begins in Sept-Oct with the advent of autumn and the
easing of long monsoon rains. The six seasons of Bengal were tied to
agricultural cycle together with rites and rituals of religion.
Previously the traditional folk-theatre Jatra had very elaborate
rituals at the beginning of its season, which commenced with the
harvesting and Durga Puja, the major religious festival of the
Hindus. It also had its end quite well marked. Jatra season was
connected with nature's cycle and performances being held in villages
during winter when the harvesting is over and people have free time.
With growing urbanization and change in economic pattern that old
practice has diminished and it has not been replaced by anything of
modern structured economy. Consequently theatre season as such does
not exist in Bangladesh, the show just goes on and on.
Infrastructure But the show cannot go on smoothly without proper
infrastructure and institutional support and that has become the
biggest problem for theatre in Bangladesh. Dhaka, the capital city
with over 90 million population so far had only two small theatre
halls and one of which is closed for over one year in order to
renovate. The good news is the construction of the National Theatre,
but that is still far from completion even after 10 years since the
construction started. In December 2003 the experimental theatre hall
in the National Theatre complex was opened formally and ITI
Bangladesh Centre used the space as one of the venues of their
theatre festival. But the 300 seat experimental theatre hall with all
its modern facilities has not yet found regular use because of the
absence of any user-friendly policy and subsidized rental fee for
theatre groups.
Cooperative ventures but an overall need for Government support The
lack of governmental support for theatre has led the theatre-people
to mobilize whatever resource they can from the community and stand
on their own feet. This is a difficult task but the respect and
relevance theatre enjoys in society has helped it to make some dent.
Bangladesh Group Theatre Federation has entered into long-term
collaboration contract with Bengal Foundation, a philanthropist
organization promoting arts. This support has enabled the Federation
to organize workshops in different parts of the country, bring
peripheral theatre groups to Dhaka to present their work and lot of
other activities including support to selected experimental
productions. Tirjak, a theatre group of Chittagong has renovated a
small old hall and made it available for the local groups to perform.
With support from the Chittagong City Corporation Tirjak is now
building their own theatre which is expected to be opened at the end
of the year. Shabadabali of Barisal could also build their own studio
theatre. But these are small-scale efforts in consideration to what
Government can do and should do. In the absence of appropriate policy
and guideline the National Fine and Performing Arts Academy
(Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy) has very little role to play.
Government is yet to perform a supportive role to theatre, on the
contrary it still clings to its controlling attitude towards theatre
hall. Only a few years back the Dramatic Performance Control Act was
abolished after a long struggle by theatre activists, but there isin
practice an act called Public Place Performance Act which local
administration implements to control performance of Jatra and also
theatre in some cases. To invite foreign or regional groups to take
part in local festivals is a hazardous process and the host
organisation has to get clearance from three different ministries
namely Ministry of Culture, Foreign Affairs and Home including
national security agencies. Apart from such control cultural
performances face other kind of attack upon them. The Bengali New
Year musical celebration, the largest of which held open air in the
park at early morning, three years ago witnessed brutal bomb attack
killing innocent spectators. The fundamentalist group also raise hue
and cry from time to time accusing some play or performance as
blasphemous. In Faridpur, a district township, one play Katha
Krishnakali (Story of Black Bud) became target of such attack. The
play was one of theatre for development genre, aimed at raising
public awareness about cross-border trafficking of women. The
fundamentalist extremist group stopped the play by violently
attacking the show and the director and playwright, young people in
their twenties, were accused of blasphemy. Warrant of arrest was
issued against them by local authority. Such incident shows the
intolerant atmosphere created by certain quarter with ulterior
motive. Similar attack was launched on the premier night against the
play Bahe Prantojon (Saga of Marginalised People) in Rajshahi,
written and directed by Moloy Bhowmik. But theatre people, with a
long history of struggle behind them, are not intimidated by such
violent attack and they are carrying on their shows.
Theatre productions in 2003 and 2004 In the year 2003 and early part
of 2004 we have witnessed lot of activities on stage but very few
major new productions. One of the reason was that most of the leading
groups continued with the performance of their existing productions.
Due to extreme lack of theatre space the groups cannot perform
frequently and even for popular and significant production the group
had to sit idle for long with on and off performance once or twice a
month. Such limited opportunity to perform is taking its toll on the
artists as well as on the group and this explains partially the lack
of major new productions. One of the oldest and leading
group `Theatre' presented a new play Madhavi based on a story of
Indian epic Mahabharata. The original Hindi play written by Bhisham
Sahani, a major literary figure of India, has been translated into
Bengali by Ashis Goswami and the play was ably directed by Ramendu
Majumdar. The play centering around the fate of Princess Madhavi has
found contemporary significance as it probes deeper into man-woman
relationship and raises many questions which have relevance in modern
society. The young actress Tropa Majumdar gave a memorable
performance in the lead role. Dhaka Theatre, Nagorik, Aranyok
continued with their previous productions which are usually drawing
full houses. The productions were Nagorik's Raktokarobi, and
Kaalshondhya, Dhaka Theatre's Prachya and Banapangshul and Aranyok's
Sangkranti. So they have not ventured into any new production during
the period under review. Among the new productions we can identify a
significant presence of women playwrights and directors. Samina Lutfa
Nitra has writtern the play Tirthanker based on the epic Shahnama. It
was staged by Subachan Natya Samsad and directed by Faiz Zahir. It
can be treated as a reenactment of Persian influence on Bengali
culture and Nitra could turn it into a play with strong anti-war
message. The young playwright has earned praise for her maiden
venture and is now working on a play about Khana, a medieval lady of
wisdom. Versatile actress of Dhaka stage Rokeya Rafique Baby has
directed the play Golapjan based on contemporary reality. She also
excelled in the lead role. The play has been produced by Theatre Art
Unit. Munira Yousuf Memy, another talented actress showed her skill
in directing Bhubaner Ghat written by Syed Manzoorul Islam and
produced by Natyajon.
New plays show a preference for myth or recreation of myth Among the
new plays a preference for myth or recreation of myth proved to be a
popular genre with different groups approaching the myth from
different angle. Lokanatyadal presented Siddhidata, a plot mixing
mythological characters and worldly creatures to achieve hilarious
impact, directed by Liaquat Ali Lucky. Nagorik Natyangan Ensemble
produced the Sanskrit classic Mrichakatik, directed by Jamaluddin
Hossain, Natyadhara presented Atish Dipanker Saparza, written and
directed by Alok Basu about a Buddhist monk of 10th century Bengal.
Very recently the students of Theatre art and Music Department of
Dhaka University impeccably produced a play by classical Sanskrit
playwright of early age, Bhasa's Madhyam biyog (Missing the Middle
Brother) adapted into Bangla. It was beautifully choreographed and
acted. Two major male characters, Bhim and Ghatotchkoch were
competently portrayed by two young actresses of the department.
Translations and adaptions another popular trend Translated and/or
adapted plays are another popular trend in Bangladesh theatre. In the
period under review Prachyanat, vibrant young group, presented Eugene
Ionesco's Rhinoceros, (directed by Towfiqul Islam Imon), Natyachakra
staged August Strindberg's Janak (The Father) directed by Debprasad
Delmath, Theatre Art Unit presented Anton Chekhov's The Cherry
Orchard (directed by Kamaluddin Nilu), Ganayan of Chittagong
presented Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman (directed by Kuntal
Barua). Centre for Asian Thatre (CAT) presented a very well-knit
production of Heiner Muller's The Mission adapted by Saidus Saklaen
and directed by Kamaluddin Neelu.
Reinterpretation of folk traditions - a major trend A major trend in
Bangladesh theatre is re-interpretation of the folk tradition. Among
such notable recent productions we can mention Sojan Badiar Ghat
produced by Padatik Natya Samsad, Bahe Prantojan by Anushilon of
Rajshahi, Sampan Naia by Uttaradhikar of Chittagong. Nrityanchal, a
dance group, presented the traditional folk musical Mahua as a dance-
drama.
Children's » theatre In recent years we have seen positive
development in children's theatre. Various groups all over the
country are working with children. Although we do not have any
permanent place for children theatre, that could not dampen the
enthusiasm to work with children in theatre. The Peoples' Theatre
Association annually organises festival of children theatre groups.
Recently artist and dramaturg Mostafa Monwar established his own
puppet theatre and fascinated the young audience with his imagination
and innovation. Tona Tuni, a children theatre group performed Torai
Bandha Gorar Dim, based on limericks by Edward Lear and Satyajit Ray.
This production with dazzling costume, lighting, scenography, music
and dance enthralled the audience both young and old. Palakar Kids, a
children's drama school, has taken initiative to present weekly
performance at their studio theatre. Sishu Theatre has produced two
short skits under single bill titled Bhuth Shikar (Hunting the
Demon), written and directed by Rezanur Rahman.
Contemporary problems on stage
Due to various reasons, intolerance of the people in power being one
of them, contemporary reality and problems did not find direct
reflection on stage although it was a very popular genre even a
decade ago. Theatre in their new play Balod (The Fool) based on a
story of renowned author Mohmmad Zafar Iqbal and directed by K. M.
Haroon has exposed the evil face of religious fundamentalists in the
backdrop of liberation war of Bangladesh. The play relate the past
with present. Another play with contemporary significance was a docu-
drama Tamas (Deep Darkness), presented by a theatre group from
Chittagong. It was based on newspaper writings and reports about the
brutal attack on religious minority at different places of the
country. Sangkranti, the popular play of Aranyak, albeit symbolically
depicted the problem involved in exposing the evil side of people in
power where a group of rural performers put their life and existence
in danger by mimicking the power groups in the annual village funfare
through their song and dance. Amid such real life backdrop many
theatre groups found it safe to make revival of their past successful
plays which still have contemporary significance. Among such revivals
are Ingeet (The Hint) by Dhaka Padatik, (exposing the barbarity of
religious fundamentalists)
(caricaturing the nouveau-riche class), The Captain of Kopenick,
translation of Carl Zuckmayer's classic play presented by Nagorik
(undermining the autocratic practices) etc.
Festivals Festivals have become an integral part of theatre in
Bangladesh, which is an effort to compensate for the lack of theatre
space and also attract new audiences. Street theatres are performed
in the open centering major cultural events. Bangladesh Street
Theatre Federation organises annual festival in February at the
Martyrs Memorial with participation of groups from all over the
country. This year it attracted a large number of audience and proved
the appeal of street theatre. Similar National Street Theatre
Festival is also organised by Bangladesh Group Theatre Federation is
association with Bengal Foundation. There were many different theatre
festivals organised by various groups, including a Festival of
Theatre of Myth and Festival of Moliere's Plays. The biggest of the
festivals was organised by ITI Bangladesh Centre in December,
2003. 'Celebrating Diversity' was the theme of the festival and 16
plays were staged in two different halls during the weeklong
festival. There was also open-air performance of music, dance, street
theatre children, theatre and folk plays. ITI Executive Council held
its session in Bangladesh for the first time. Four of the permanent
committees of ITI also held their Board Meeting during the festival.
The committees included Cultural Identity and Development Committee,
Dramatic Theatre Committee, Theatre Education Committee and
Communication Committee. A two day international seminar on the
theme `Celebrating Diversity' also took place in Dhaka during this
period.
Workshops for young theatre artists Recently ITI Bangladesh Centre
organised two regional theatre workshops in succession which
generated lot of interest among regional theatre artists. The first
of the workshop was held under participatory programme of UNESCO and
26 young theatre artists from India, Nepal and Bangladesh
participated in it. The theme of the 10-day workshop was `Space in
theatre : choreography and innovation' and the anchor person was
Prabir Guha, eminent theatre director of India. The other workshop
was initiated by CIDC of ITI Worldwide of which Nasiruddin Yousuff,
noted theatre director of Bangladesh, is the President. The workshop
was conducted by Alexander Stillmark of Germany and participated by
theatre artists from India, Pakistan and Nepal. The workshop
titled `My Unknown Enemy' aspired to hold meeting between people of
theatre from different countries and regions, which face each other
in political, cultural and religious conflict situation. Similar
workshops took place in 2002 in Bonn and in 2003 in Cairo. This
unique workshop in Dhaka was done on the text excerpts of Samuel
Beckett's play Waiting for Godot keeping in mind the socio-political
realities of India, Pakistan and Nepal.
Theatre for Bangladesh is a celebration of life, but like life in
Bangladesh it faces many odds. Nevertheless people tap their great
source of energy to move forward and life goes on. Likewise the show
goes on and theatre tries to fathom the deeper meaning of existence
in order to gain spirit to overcome all the barriers. Theatre is
facing many difficulties in Bangladesh but it is as exciting as ever.
Mofidul Hoque is a theatre critic and cultural activist. He is also a
Board Member of ITI Communication Committee.
Dinabandhu Mitra
Michael Madhusudan Dutta
Rabindranath Tagore
Sisir Bhaduri
Girish Ghosh
Utpal Dutt
Ajitesh Bandyopadyay
Badal Sarkar
Arun Mukhopadhyay
Bibhas Chakrabarty
Rudraprasad Sengupta
Sohag Sen
Jochhan Dastidar
Bratya Basu
Suman Mukherjee
Goutam Halder
Swatilekha Sengupta
Abanti Chakraborty
Chandra Dastidar
Usha Ganguly
Joyraj Bhattacharya
Azad Abul Kalam
Manoj Mitra
THEATRE The Mirror of Class: Essays on Bengali Theatre by Himani
Bannerji; Papyrus, Calcutta; Rs.200.
IT is a pity that this remarkable text on 20th century Bengali
theatre - its ideology and practice - has remained confined within
the shores of India. This book is not merely an evaluation of Bengali
theatre through the linked prisms of class formation and class
awareness but also a penetrating sociological study that explores the
emergence and advance of the urban Bengali middle class whose
contradictions, aspirations and compromises have been adequately
reflected on the stage. In this sense, the very last chapter "The
Mirror of Class - Class Subjectivity and Politics in 19th Century
Bengal" forms an integral part of the book. This class in question,
ironically, preceded the "bhadralok" Communist of later years and, as
a result, the high-pitched dramaturgy of Girish Chandra Ghosh also
anticipated the sensational epic theatre of Utpal Dutt. The author
has examined these links between the past and present at the levels
of attitude and creativity with incisive clarity. In fact, the last
sentence of the book "Both ruled and ruling, a kind of Janus at
birth, the colonial middle classes through their reorganisation of
cultural and intellectual life captured moments of class experiences
and desires", prompts us to recall the dramatisation of the "captured
moments" that followed in our contemporary world. No wonder, Utpal
Dutt decided to focus on this fragmented colonial psyche by writing a
play on Michael Madhusudan Dutt who was ambivalent enough to sway
between "colonial" admiration and "anti-colonial" revolt.
Courtesy: The Utpal Dutt Foundation for International Theatre
Studies, Kolkata.
Utpal Dutt in one of his dramatic productions, "Othello". Dutt staged
one production after another in Bengali theatre and tried to evolve a
comprehensive theory of Epic Theatre.
All the seven chapters of this book are excellent examples of Marxian
dissection of the Bengali theatre and mind. But if I were asked which
two chapters score over the others, I will mention,
unhesitatingly, "Representation and Class Politics in the Theatre of
Utpal Dutt" and "Nation and Class in the Communist Aesthetics and the
Theatre of Utpal Dutt". The author deliberately chose Utpal Dutt
because he strode like a Colossus over the realm of Bengali theatre
staging one production after another and, at the same time, trying to
evolve a comprehensive theory of Epic Theatre which, the
indefatigable Thespian hoped, should serve as a model for others.
Utpal Dutt, of course, borrowed the expression "Epic Theatre" from
Bertolt Brecht, though his own praxis of "Epic Theatre" was poles
apart from, indeed explicitly opposed to, Brecht's concept of the
same. It is high time that we underlined this intrinsic difference
because critics in India, often too glibly, draw a straight line from
Brecht's "Mother Courage and her Children" to Utpal
Dutt's "Barricade". Himani Bannerji is simply superb when she
pinpoints the differences between the two dramatists and producers.
In her words, "Utpal Dutt's Epic Theatre, unlike Brecht's Epic
Theatre for class struggle, is first and foremost a nationalist
theatre with an added on rather than intrinsic socialist agenda"
(Page 13). When one elaborates this basic difference one concludes
that whereas Utpal Dutt, closer to his own theatrical tradition and
Stanislavsky (the Russian theatre director and actor), aspired to
raise his Epic Theatre based on the reinvigorating power of myths,
the wily Brecht formulated his vision by subjecting this very myth to
question. One was anchored in his rich and vibrant epic-mythic mode,
and the other delighted in sabotaging the myths from inside. Utpal
Dutt needed colourful heroes, Brecht longed for a society which did
not need heroes. Brecht's "Schweyk", "Mother Courage" and "Galileo"
have nothing heroic about them in the Aristotelian or Elizabethan
sense. Quite correctly, the analyst has traced the genesis of Utpal
Dutt's epic-aesthetic to his admiration for (Josef) Stalin. In a
trenchant sentence which closes the last chapter on Utpal Dutt,
Himani Bannerji proposes in combative spirit, "His scheme of mythic
realism is an aesthetic manifestation of his nationalist bourgeois
socialism, whose code name could be Stalinism" (Page 118).
The succinct comparison leads to the unavoidable question: Why have
Brecht's examples of Epic Theatre ("Mother Courage" and "Galileo")
turned into classics and why are plays of Utpal Dutt - even those
texts such as "Tiner Talwar" and "Dushapner Nagari" which mesmerised
the audience - no longer read? Utpal Dutt could have claimed that his
theatre sought to expedite revolution and did not seek immortality.
But one could pose the counter-statement, namely, Brecht was no less
a political being than Utpal Dutt and his plays were also devoted to
the cause of Communism, unflinchingly? No doubt, the critic's
sympathy lies with Bertolt Brecht. But her fairness also ensures that
Utpal Dutt's ceaseless commitment receives the accolade that is due
to it. In all his productions, some of them were breathtaking, Utpal
Dutt achieved what he wanted to - "reaffirm the violent history of
India, reaffirm the material tradition of its people, recount again
and again the heroic tales of grand rebels and martyrs" (Page 70,
Utpal Dutt's own words).
The basic question that the author has raised and also answered
without mincing words is: To what extent has the politicised and
progressive theatre of West Bengal dominated by the middle class
since "Nabanna" (1944), the path-breaking production of the Indian
People's Theatre Association (IPTA) in the 1940s, till our times been
able to fulfil its essentially political function of drawing in the
exploited to the auditorium and expediting the cause of a socialist
revolution? In other words, has this theatre been the "child of
changing, restless, crisis-ridden and violent times"? (Page 19).
Unfortunately, the playwrights, directors and other theatre-workers,
in spite of being fired by the dream of liberation, have remained
rooted to their middle class anchor. And because of this class-
conscripted attitude which shackles the Being as well as
Consciousness, even the historic "Nabanna" ("The New Harvest") "gives
us little or no indication of the social forces that structure and
surround the lives" of the famine-stricken peasants. Indeed, what the
critic highlights as the failure in "Nabanna" has turned out to be
the paradigmatic curse of the Left Theatre of Bengal. The words she
has employed to define the severe class-limitation of "Nabanna" could
easily be applied again and again in the context of many other plays
we see regularly at Academy of Fine Arts, Sisir Mancha and other
auditoriums: "It was the middle class playwrights, with sympathetic
observations of the miseries of the people, who wrote the plays, and
it was middle class actors and actresses who put on tattered clothes,
carried begging bowls or sticks and spears and spoke in dialects,
carefully erasing the traces of the "proper" and "high" Bengali they
had spoken all their lives" (Page 48).
This intrinsic, class-dictated deficiency created a tough barrier
when the middle class theatre-workers attempted to cross the border
and stage the Bengali adaptation of Maxim Gorky's Mother in a lower
middle class, proletarian settlement. The theatre group "Chetana",
helped by the Communist Party of India (Marxist), staged "Mother" in
a field where red flags fluttered, but the mothers and daughters who
constituted the audience hardly received any political education from
the performance. They simply could not identify themselves with
the "Mother" on the stage as was evident in the comment, "that mother
is not like you and me. It's white people's mother" (Page 44). Above
all, the Bengali version of the play, instead of tracing the
emergence of the mother as a steel-hard proletarian figure who has
realised the essence of class struggle and declassed solidarity,
offered a typical Bengali mother, sentimental and moral in the
bourgeois sense of the term. The play was highly normative, not in
the least dialectical. And the author, who saw it all with her own
eyes, had to conclude, "It seemed like a garish, over-coloured
political poster... The image of the working class came from book to
life, not the other way" (Page 42).
Even when this same group under the able direction of Arun Mukherjee
staged a remarkable play like "Jagannath" where "class became
palpable as a social relation in each episode" (Page 36), the
audience remained strictly middle class. In what is possibly the most
revealing section of the book, the author describes how the tea
vendor's boy, classless by birth, prefers to sell tea to the theatre-
going babus in place of seeing the play himself, ostensibly meant for
him. His simple words expose the terrible gap that has grown between
the classes: "These things are for you people, for the gentle folk.
Don't understand what's going on, what's being said"(Page 33). What
follows from these words is no less terrible - we, the middle class,
view these artistic productions of the middle class to experience a
catharsis of sorts. The more the sensation on stage, the more the
intensity of our purgation. Hence we return after seeing "Tiner
Talwar" as "relieved" human beings enwrapped in our own web of
bourgeois moralism. Our alienation is complete. Hence, neither the
performance nor our participation should be equated with the sensuous
and liberating activity about which Marx spoke in his Economic and
Philosophical Manuscripts.
But we need elevating, creative labour even more urgently at this
point of time when fascist-fundamental
vulgarise and appropriate that very national history which inspired
Utpal Dutt. Moreover, this labour should uphold the cause of social
justice by forging a link between the oppressions and class, gender,
caste and the new element of "race". Himani Bannerji, in "One Woman,
Two Women, Without Women", shows how the class question is
intrinsically linked with the feminist perspective. Her excellent
interaction with Sobha Sen, one of India's great actresses,
emphasises how in a semi-feudal, patriarchal set-up "class is
engendered and gender classified" (Page 156).
It is doubtful if any other text on Bengali theatre has linked the
history of dramatic performance with the history of the Bengali
middle class with such scholarly verve, analytical brilliance and in
so lucid a style. Using class as the defining prism, Himani Bannerji
has focussed on the inherent limits of a class-defined creative
enterprise whose Utopian resolve has not been nourished by the energy
of classless activism. While reading her text, one is reminded of
Louis Aragon's fervent query directed at Pablo Picasso: "Pablo, my
friend what of our dreams / what of our dreams".
The advent of Bengali theatre may be dated back to 1831, when
Prasanna Kumar Thakur established the 'Hindu Rangamanch' at Calcutta
and staged Wilson's English translation of Bhavabhuti's Sanskrit
drama 'Uttar Ramacharitam'
In the initial days, Bengali theatre was influenced to some extent
by `Yatra' (folk plays acted on open stage).
During the early years, themes related to the society, religion,
traditions and customs formed the major part of the contents of the
plays.
After that, patriotism, horror of Bengal famine, aftermath of both
World War and trauma of partition and riots in the post-Independence
era found emotive expressions in Bengali theatre.
Bengali theatre continued its journey through 'Kirtivilas' of
Yogendra Chandra Gupta,'Bhadrarjuna' of Taracharan,'
Sarvaswa' of Ramanarayana Tarkaratna and'Neel Darpan' of Deenbandhu
Mitra.
Social dramas of Girish Chandra Ghosh, historical dramas of D.L.Roy
and artistic dramas of Rabindranath Tagore continued to reach up to
the stage of realistic dramas and marked the beginning of the
parallel theatre.
But it was Shombhu Mitra and Utpal Dutt who can be credited with
having given Modern Bengali theatre a thrust and injecting new life
into the existing traditions. They were the true inheritors of the
great theatre tradition began by Sisir Kumar Bhaduri and Bijon
Bhattacharya.
The famous actor and playwright Girishchandra Ghosh, one of the
pioneers of Bengali theatre, in his plays "Siraj-ud-daula"
and "Mirkashim" presented Muslim characters as patriotic nationalist
leaders equally respected by Hindus and Muslims.
Another famous playwright and poet Dijendralal Roy, in his
play "Mebar Patan" (The Fall of Mewar), set a bright example of Hindu-
Muslim amity through the relation between Amar Singh, a Hindu prince
and Mahabat Khan, a converted Muslim.
Ritwik Ghatak, the famous playwright and actor and film director
wrote "Dalil" (The Deed) in 1951 wherein the people living in East
and West Bengal feel sad and agitated because their motherland has
been partitioned.
The famous playwright and actor Utpal Dutt wrote "Itihasher
Kathgoray" (On the Derk of History) in 1965 wherein Dutt shows that
communal disbelief and hatred generated by the outbreak of War
between India and Pakistan gradually weaken and fade away
The legend, Shambhu Mitra and his immensely talented wife Tripti
Mitra went on to notch many successful productions for Bohurupee, a
group formed by them, including Dashchakra, Raktakarabi, Galilieo and
Chand Baniker Pala. Today their equally talented daughter Saonli
Mitra is carrying on the production for this group.
Bengal also had the likes of Ajitesh Bandopadhyay who founded
Bohurupee and the great Badal Sircar, whose plays like Evam Indrajit,
continue to fascinate the Indian psyche. But that was Bengali theatre.
Even Hindi theatre flourished in Bengal under the likes of Shyamanad
Jalan, Pratibha Agarwal and Usha Ganguli, Anamika, Padatik and
Rangkarmee (of Rudra Prasad Sen Gupta) continue even today to provide
thought provoking fare to the theatre-going public of Bengal.
They may not be titans but their contribution to the keeping alive
the vibrant tradition of theatre in Bengal is worth accolades.
In dilemma, CPM eyes stick
Somnath adamant, party mulls action
http://www.telegrap
JAYANTH JACOB AND BISWAJIT ROY
July 16: Fuming but befuddled, the CPM leadership is thinking of
denouncing Somnath Chatterjee at the central committee meeting this
weekend if he does not step down as Speaker by then, sources said
today.
Chatterjee, however, betrayed little sign of giving up his post
before the trust vote on July 22. "It's a million-dollar question
what I will do on July 22," he told Times Now television on board a
flight to Hyderabad.
The CPM central committee is scheduled to meet in Delhi on July 19
and 20. The sources said that if the defiance continued, the party
would be left with "little option" but to "denounce" Chatterjee.
The careful choice of words — "denunciation" — lays bare the dilemma
of the party in deploying the usual disciplinary measures on the
veteran who has become an unlikely tormentor of Prakash Karat. The
party usually showcauses a member accused of flouting discipline,
suspends the person if no satisfactory reply is furnished and
sometimes pulls the expulsion trigger.
But in the case of Chatterjee, such measures are certain to ignite an
outcry in the party with the potential to provide an outlet to the
discontent about voting along with the BJP on the trust motion.
Besides, the CPM will find it difficult to formally charge Chatterjee
with indiscipline as the party had been claiming in public the
Speaker was free to take his own decision, though privately it has
been piling pressure on him to quit.
If the CPM decides on denunciation, it could accuse Chatterjee of not
taking into account "the political situation" — a euphemism for the
need to topple the government, even if it means voting along with the
BJP.
Somnath Chatterjee
But the sources said the CPM leadership was still hopeful of a
solution. The party's best option — Chatterjee recanting — looks
unlikely.
Two other options are unpalatable to the party: if Chatterjee
presides over the trust motion and then resigns — a possible option —
it is of no use to the CPM. If he resigns as Speaker before the vote,
he is likely to quit as MP also, which will be a bigger embarrassment
to the party.
CPM central committee leader Mohammad Salim said it "would have been
better if the party had discussed" with Chatterjee before including
his name in the list.
CPM sources claimed that the party had given Chatterjee a long rope,
including a statement today by politburo member Sitaram Yechury.
The statement, apparently issued to clarify reports attributed to
Yechury, virtually admitted an oversight on a technical ground. "What
I had said is that the Speaker's name should be included in the CPI
(M) list as he was elected as a CPI(M) candidate but with an asterisk
denoting that he is the Lok Sabha Speaker, as is the normal
parliamentary practice," Yechury's statement said.
The statement prompted sections of the party to split hairs to
establish whether it represented a climbdown or a hardening of stand.
"It's virtually a public apology on behalf of the leadership. Now we
hope that Somnathda, being a large-hearted person, will no more stick
to his position as he has already succeeded in making a point," a
party leader said.
But others said Yechury's statement subtly asserted the party's right
to enlist Chatterjee as a voter in the House.
Subhas in touch with Speaker
OUR SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT
Basu
Calcutta, July 16: Speaker Somnath Chatterjee and Bengal transport
minister Subhas Chakraborty, both opposed to voting along with the
BJP, are believed to have spoken to each other today.
Sources said Chatterjee gave Chakraborty the impression that he would
not resign before the trust vote.
Despite a censure threat, Chakraborty refused to budge from his stand
that the CPM should not vote with the BJP. Asked whether he would
withdraw his statement, he said: "Why should I?"
Jyoti Basu, Chakraborty'
not have spoken out through the media.
But party sources said Basu was unlikely to have been unhappy at the
statement.
Basu unwell
Basu, who turned 95 a few days ago, hurt himself when he fell off his
bed. He has chest pain but doctors did not detect any fracture, his
aide Joykrishna Ghosh said. Ignoring Basu's reservations, the party
has arranged a night attendant.
Risk & Rajiv on Rahul lips
OUR SPECIAL CORRESPONDENT
Rahul Gandhi in Amethi. (PTI)
Lucknow, July 16: In one of the most forceful arguments for the
nuclear deal, Rahul Gandhi today said it was a "risk" worth taking
for the benefit of the country and drew a parallel with his father's
dream of a computerised India which had then received similar
condemnation from the Left.
Rahul, on a tour of his constituency Amethi, reiterated his praise
for Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and lauded him for
demonstrating "extraordinary vision, tenacity and leadership" in his
efforts to make the deal a reality at the risk of his own government.
Stating that he was extending "100 per cent" support to Singh, the
Nehru-Gandhi scion said: "For ideological or political reasons the
deal is being opposed. But the Congress has taken a decision which is
correct. If something is in the interest of the people, numbers do
not matter….
"Sometimes in life, risks have to be taken. The Prime Minister thinks
it is in the interest of the country. If the government falls in the
process, so be it."
"So be it" is the phrase the Prime Minister used to dare the Left
last August. It was also not lost on Delhi's political number
crunchers — busy tabulating the votes each side is believed to be
commanding — that for the second time in less than a week, Rahul has
spoken of the risk of the government falling.
Today, Rahul took a swipe at the Left, which has been virulently
critical of the deal, and saw in the protests a strain similar to its
opposition to his father Rajiv Gandhi's vision of a computerised
India.
Rahul recalled how the Left parties in the mid-eighties had
stonewalled the introduction of computers in government offices on
the ground that it would lead to massive retrenchment.
Rahul said the criticism faced by his father was "unjust and
mischievous"
some good for India. "Even then, everybody thought the move to
introduce computers was ridiculous," he said.
Ironically, the Left, which had spearheaded the campaign against
computerisation, is now a firm believer in the benefits of
technology. The CPM's offices in New Delhi and elsewhere are fully
computerised and most of its frontline leaders cannot be parted from
their laptops.
Rahul also made an appeal to Young India, saying he hoped the deal
would have the backing of young MPs irrespective of party
affiliation. "I am sure all young Lok Sabha members, even those from
the Opposition, are convinced that the nuclear deal is in the
country's interest," he said.
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